GIFT  OF 
SEELEY  W.  MUDD 

and 

GEORGE  I.  COCHRAN     MEYER  ELSASSER 
DR.  JOHN  R.  HAYNES    WILLIAM  L.  HONNOLD 
JAMES  R.  MARTIN         MRS.  JOSEPH  F.  SARTORI 

to  tin 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SOUTHERN  BRANCH 


JOHN  FISKE 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


GEORGE     WASHINGTON. 


HISTORY  OF  OUR  COUNTRY 


A  TEXT-BOOK  FOR  SCHOOLS 


OSCAR   H.  COOPER,  LL.D. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Galveston,  Texas,  and  Ex-Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  for  the  State  of  Texas 


HARRY   F.  ESTILL 

Professor  in  the  Sam  Houston  State  Normal  Institute 
Huntsville,  Texas 


LEONARD    LEMMON 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Sherman,   Texas 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 

GINN   &   COMPANY,    PUBLISHERS 

CTbf  atbcnartun  ^rrss 

1898 


84984 


COPYRIGHT,  1895,  BY 
GINN    &   COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1898,  BY 
OSCAR   H.  COOPER 
HARRY  F.  ESTILL 
LEONARD   LEMMON 

ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 


E: 


PREFACE. 


THIS  "  History  of  Our  Country  "  has  been  prepared  in  the 
belief  that  there  is  need  of  a  text-book  on  the  history  of  the 
United  States  which  would  present  fairly  and  impartially  all 
sections  of  the  Union.     The  authors  have  endeavored  to  divest 
the  narrative  of  all  bias  for  or  against  the  North  or  the  South, 
the   East  or  the  West.     The   strife  for  sectional  or  partisan 
supremacy  has  often  transcended  the  bounds  of  true  patriotism, 
but  it  is  believed  that  such  strife  has  been  inevitable,  and  that 
..I  in  the  long  run  it  has  made  our  country  stronger  and  richer 
£3  in  the  nobler  elements  of  national  life.      Love  of  country  is 
•^  greater  than  the  love  of  party,  and  loyalty  to  the  state  is  a 
0)  permanent  and  indestructible  element  in  loyalty  to  the  nation. 
,<n  Our   country   is    "  an    indestructible    union    of    indestructible 
PM  states."     Our  history  should  be  so  taught  that  the  next  gen- 
eration will  cherish  the  patriotism  which  conserves  the  rights  of 
the  states,  and  honor  the  patriotism  which  guards  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Federal  Union.     If  this  book  shall  prove  to  be 
helpful  to  the  great  army  of  earnest  and  faithful  teachers  in 
making  the  story  of  our  country's  life,  growth,  and  progress 
more  real    and  interesting   to  their  pupils,  the   hope  of   the 
authors  will  be  amply  fulfilled. 

OSCAR  H.  COOPER. 
GALVESTON,  TEXAS,  April  25,  1895. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER. 


In  each  lesson,  the  story  of  the  text  should  in  some  way  be  connected 
with  the  every-day  life  and  experience  of  the  pupil.  The  outline  and  most 
of  the  events  of  our  country's  history  may  be  readily  grasped  by  minds  of 
moderate  maturity  and  experience  ;  but  in  the  life  of  an  enlightened  people 
like  our  own,  there  are  necessarily  subjects  whose  thorough  comprehension 
requires  considerable  information  and  mental  development.  The  wise 
teacher  will  note  the  intellectual  strength  of  his  class  in  relation  to  the 
deep  places  of  the  subject.  Local  surroundings,  peculiarities  of  individual 
pupils  will  suggest  plans  to  connect  the  known  with  the  unknown,  the 
present  with  the  past,  the  near-at-hand  with  the  far-away.  An  event  or 
question  beyond  the  mental  horizon  of  an  immature  class  should  be 
touched  upon  lightly,  or  deferred  for  later  study. 

Each  historical  event  should  be  associated  in  the  learner's  mind  with 
other  events.  Isolated  facts  are  soon  forgotten.  In  the  beginning  of  each 
recitation,  call  up  the  past  events  with  which  the  lesson  of  the  day  is 
directly  connected.  Certain  pupils  may  be  appointed  to  investigate  and 
report  to  the  class  special  lines  of  review ;  as  Relation  of  France  to 
American  History,  Important  American  Inventions,  Outline  of  Tariff 
Legislation,  etc.,  etc. 

Whenever  practicable,  present  the  story  objectively  or  pictorially.  The 
learner  never  gets  too  mature  to  be  profited  by  the  occasional  use  of  simple 
devices  that  appeal  to  the  sense  of  sight.  The  charts  on  pages  50  and  108 
will  suggest  plans  that  may  be  worked  out  by  teacher  and  class,  and  used 
to  great  advantage  in  reviews.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  portraits,  pictures, 
and  historic  relics  have  their  value  in  this  connection. 

Maps  are  as  indispensable  to  the  teaching  of  history  as  of  geography. 
While  it  is  believed  that  the  rich  supply  of  maps  in  the  "  History  of  Our 
Country"  is  ample  for  the  preparation  of  the  lesson,  yet  for  the  recitation 
wall-maps  are  necessary.  The  question  of  expense  need  not  enter  here. 
A  large  map  drawn  on  the  blackboard  in  colored  crayon  by  one  of  the 
pupils  will  answer  all  the  purposes  of  the  manufactured  map,  and  possess 
the  added  interest  of  being  "home-made." 


Vi  SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 

There  should  be  a  constant  and  earnest  effort  to  awaken  a  spirit  of 
historical  investigation.  Mere  memory-training  is  the  unpardonable  sin  of 
the  history  teacher.  The  "Thought  Questions"  in  the  text  are  an  effort 
to  lead  the  pupil,  to  think  for  himself.  It  is  hoped  that  they  will  suggest 
other  and  better  means  by  which  the  imagination,  the  judgment,  the  reason, 
and  the  moral  faculties  of  the  pupils  will  be  called  into  healthy  exercise. 
Within  the  reach  of  every  class  there  should  be  at  least  a  few  standard 
works  of  history  and  biography,  by  means  of  which  the  pupil's  small  store 
of  knowledge  may  be  increased,  and  the  spirit  of  investigation  encouraged. 

The  Topical  Analyses  will  be  found  helpful  to  those  teachers  who  prefer 
questions  on  the  text  to  the  topical  method  of  recitation.  They  may  be 
used  to  advantage  in  blackboard  work  ;  one  pupil  being  required  to  write 
the  topic  headings  of  the  lesson,  another  to  add  the  topical  analyses, 
others  to  expand  into  a  written  narrative.  They  will  afford,  moreover,  a 
convenient  basis  for  reviews. 

Pupils  may  be  referred  to  the  Index  for  the  pronunciation  of  difficult 
names. 

H.  F.  E. 

NOTE  i.  — The  following  is  suggested  as  an  inexpensive  but  valuable  reference  library  : 

From  Riverside  Literature  Series,  15  cents  each,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston.  — 
Longfellow's  Evangeline ;  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish ;  Song  of  Hiawatha  (two  parts) ; 
Holmes's  Grandmother's  Story  and  other  Poems  ;  Hawthorne's  Grandfather's  Chair  (three 
parts) ;  Hawthorne's  Biographical  Stories. 

From  Old  South  Leaflets,  5  cents  each,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston.  — Voyages  to  Vin- 
land,  from  the  Saga  of  Eric  the  Red ;  Marco  Polo's  Account  of  Japan  and  Java ;  Americus 
Vesputius's  Account  of  his  First  Voyage  ;  Charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

Irving's  Columbus,  John  Alden,  N.  Y. ;  Fiske's  Irving's  Washington,  Macy's  Civil 
Government,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston  ;  Parkman's  The  Jesuits  in  North  America,  and  La  Salle 
and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West,  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston;  Drake's  Making  of 
New  England,  and  Making  of  the  Great  West,  Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y.  ;  Cooke's  Virginia, 
and  My  Lady  Pocahontas,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. ;  Curry's  The  South  in  Relation  to  the 
Constitution  and  Union,  Putnam's  Sons,  N.  Y. ;  Higginson's  Larger  History  of  the  U.  S., 
Harpers,  N.  Y.  ;  A.  H.  Stephen's  Larger  History  of  U.  S.,  National  Pub.  Co.,  Phila. 

NOTE  2.  —  For  the  preparation  of  the  original  drawings  of  many  of  the  maps  in  this 
book,  acknowledgment  is  made  to  Mr.  Alois  Morkovsky,  of  Praha,  Texas. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY.  PACT 

AMERICA  400  YEARS  AGO i 

PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION. 

THREE  GREAT  VOYAGERS 13 

EXPLORATIONS  AND  SETTLEMENTS 29 

THE  COLONIAL  PERIOD. 

FOUNDING  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ENGLISH  COLONIES  53 
DOWNFALL  OF  THE  FRENCH  POWER  IN  AMERICA  .        .        ..no 

LIFE  IN  THE  COLONIES 124 

ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

WAR  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 152 

THE  CONFEDERATION 211 

THE  UNION  OF  THE  STATES.  -  DEVELOPMENT,  DIVISION. 

PERIOD  OF  DEVELOPMENT  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  225 

GROWTH  OF  SECTIONAL  ANTAGONISM 282 

THE  WAR  BETWEEN  THE  STATES 355 

THE  STATES  REUNITED. 

THE  RECONSTRUCTION  PERIOD      .......  416 

RECENT  EVENTS 435 

APPENDIX. 

A.  OUTLINE  OF  AMERICAN  LITERATURE      ....  i 

B.  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES xxi 

C.  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES         .        .        .      xxxvi 
INDEX .                                   .  Ivii 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

LIST  OF  FULL  AND  DOUBLE-PAGE  MAPS. 

PAGE 

INDIAN  TRIBES  OF  UNITED  STATES  (COLORED)  ....  3 

ROUTE  OF  NORSE  VOYAGERS 14 

Six  IMPORTANT  VOYAGES .  24 

REVOLUTION  IN  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES          ....  165 

BRITISH  CAMPAIGN  AGAINST  PHILADELPHIA        ....  185 
UNITED  STATES  AT  CLOSE  OF  REVOLUTION  (COLORED)  .        .        .211 

THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY  (COLORED) 213 

THE  TERRITORY  OF  LOUISIANA  (COLORED) 244 

THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1861  (COLORED) 360 

TERRITORIAL  GROWTH  OF  UNITED  STATES  (COLORED)    .        .        .  424 

THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  THE  PRESENT  TIME  (COLORED)   .        .  448 

FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON Frontispiece 

WASHINGTON  CROSSING  THE  DELAWARE 179 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN      .        . 218 

FLAGS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 225 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON 241 

HENRY  CLAY -       .        .  268 

JOHN  C.  CALHOUN       • 285 

DANIEL  WEBSTER 286 

SAM  HOUSTON 303 

JEFFERSON  DAVIS 346 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 355 

FLAGS  OF  CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA        .        .        .        -359 

U.  S.  GRANT 368 

ROBERT  E.  LEE 377 

STONEWALL  JACKSON 383 

LIBERTY  ENLIGHTENING  THE  WORLD 446 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


AMERICA    400   YEARS    AGO. 

I.    The  North  American  jContinent.  —  Four  hundred  years 
ago  the  eastern  part  of  the  North  American  continent,  from 


Ancient  Cliff-Dwellings. 


Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  was  a  vast  forest,  broken 
here  and  there  by  small  clearings  which  the  savage  natives  had 


2  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

made  by  ''girdling"  the  trees.  Beyond  the  Mississippi  were 
uncultivated  prairies,  upon  which  herds  of  deer  and  buffalo 
roamed  unmolested.  Still  farther  westward  the  peaks  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  looked  down  upon  a  solitude  undisturbed 
by  human  beings,  save  that  here  and  there  strange  villages  of 
"  cliff-dwellers  "  hung  upon  the  canon  sides.  On  the  Pacific 
slope  lay  fertile  valleys  untouched  by  the  hand  of  man. 

Yet  the  physical  features  of  this  continent  fitted  it  for  rapid 
settlement,  and  destined  it  to  be  the  home  of  a  great  people. 
The  Atlantic  coast,  indented  with  numerous  harbors,  formed 
the  doorway  to  the  civilization  of  the  Old  World.  Many  wide 
and  deep  rivers,  such  as  the  St.  Lawrence,  Hudson,  Potomac, 
and  James,  opened  the  way  from  the  coast  to  the  interior. 
Diversified  climate,  fertile  soil,  and  the  boundless  natural 
resources  of  the  country,  made  a  noble  land,  "fitted  to  call 
forth  and  reward  the  energies  of  man." 

2.  The  First  Americans.  —  The  European  explorers  of 
America  found  the  continent  already  inhabited  by  a  large 
number  of  human  beings.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country  these 
natives  had  made  progress  towards 
civilization.  In  Central  America 
there  are  ruins  of  what  were  once 
beautiful  cities.  The  Peruvians  of 
South  America  and  the  Aztecs  of 
Mexico  invented  a  system  of  writ- 
ing, cultivated  the  soil,  built  good 
roads,  and  showed  much  skill  in 
architecture.  They  were  expert 
Dwellings,  N.  M.  Potters  and  workers  in  metals. 

The  Pueblo  tribes  in  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  built  houses  of  sun-dried  brick  on  high  plateaus 
and  in  the  cliffs  of  canons.  They  also  made  cloth  and  pottery. 


AMERICA    4OO    YEARS    AGO. 


The  inhabitants  of  the  greater  part  of  the  continent,  how- 
ever, were  savages.  These  bore  the  general  name  of  Indians, 
a  name  given  them  by  the  early  explorers,  who  believed  the 
new  continent  to  be  a  part  of  India.  The  Indians  were 
divided  into  wandering  tribes,  whose  territories  were  marked 
by  no  fixed  boundaries. 

3.  Classification  of  Indian  Tribes.  —  The  Indians  east  of 
the    Mississippi   were    divided    into   three    great    families    of 
tribes,  —  the  Iroquois,  the  Algon- 

quins,  and  the  Mobilians.  The 
Iroquois",  or  Five  Nations,  were 
located  in  the  territory  of  the  pres- 
ent State  of  New  York.  Various 
tribes  of  the  Algonquins  occupied 
New  England  and  the  country  as 
far  south  as  North  Carolina.  The 
Mobilians,  including  the  Creeks, 
Cherokees,  and  other  smaller 
tribes,  were  found  in  the  south. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  the 
Dakotas,  Sioux,  Comanches,  and 
Apaches  were  the  most  formidable. 

The  various  tribes  differed 
among  themselves  in  language, 
manners,  and  customs,  but  they 
had  many  characteristics  in  com- 
mon. 

4.  Personal  Appearance — The 

North  American  Indian  was  called 

the    "  red    man,"    because    of   his 

reddish  brown,  or  copper  color.     He  had  high  cheek  bones, 

small  black  eyes,  coarse  black  hair,  and  little   or  no  beard. 

His  figure  was  straight,  slender,  and  of  moderate  height.     His 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


clothing  was  scanty,  —  a  deerskin  over  his  shoulders,  a  strip  of 
the  same  material  around  his  waist,  and  in  winter  a  pair 
of  leggings  to  shield  him  from  the  cold.  His  feet  were 
protected  by  "  moccasins  "  made  of  soft  buckskin  and  trimmed 
with  beads  or  shells.  He  often  tattooed  himself.  With 
colored  clay  he  painted  fantastic  figures  on  his  body.  He 
adorned  his  head  with  feathers,  while  from  his  belt  or 
around  his  neck  hung  eagles'  claws  and  other  trophies  of 
the  chase. 

3.  Home  Life.  —  The  tribes  were  constantly  migrating  from 
one  part  of  the  country  to  another,  and  rarely  had  any  perma- 
nent place  of  abode.  Impelled  by  the  desire  for  society,  and 

for  protection  against  their 
enemies,  the  members  of  the 
same  tribe  lived  together  in 
groups  of  huts,  or  villages. 
These  huts  were  called  "  wig- 
I  warns."  They  were  tempo- 
'  rary  structures,  made  usually 
by  tying  together  the  tops  of 
saplings  or  poles  arranged  in 
a  circle  and  then  covering  this 
framework  with  bark  or  with 
skins  of  animals.  An  open- 
ing was  left  in  the  top  of  the  wigwam  for  the  smoke  to  escape. 
They  had  no  furniture,  save  mats  for  beds,  and  a  few  rude 
cooking  vessels  of  stone  or  baked  clay.  All  the  hard  work 
was  done  by  the  women  of  the  tribe  ;  they  cleared  the  small 
patches,  cultivated  the  soil,  and  raised  the  scanty  crops  of 
corn,  beans,  melons,  and  tobacco  which  the  tribe  consumed. 
The  men  spent  most  of  their  time  hunting,  fishing,  or  on  the 
"war  path."  When  not  so  engaged  they  were  smoking  and 
talking  around  the  campfire,  sleeping  away  the  long,  idle  days, 


AMERICA    40O    YEARS    AGO. 


gambling,1  or  playing  such  games  as  football,  quoits,  etc.  The 
children  wandered  about  in  savage  freedom,  uncared  for,  and 
untaught,  save  in  wrestling,  fishing,  and  forest  arts.  The 
Indian  had  no  domestic  animals,  except  a  sort  of  wolfish  dog 
that  accompanied  its  master  on  the  chase. 

6.  Social  Distinctions;  the  "  Totem."  —  There  were  no 
grades  of  society  among  the  Indians.  One  warrior  was  as 
good  as  another,  and  around  the  council-fires 
all  had  the  right  to  be  heard.  Deference  was 
shown  to  old  men,  wise  men,  orators,  and 
heads  of  clans. 

A  peculiar  social  institution  called  the  "totem" 
existed  among  most  of  the  tribes.  Tribes  were 
divided  into  clans.  Each  clan  had  its  peculiar 
emblem,  called  the  "totem,"  consisting  of  some 
bird,  beast,  or  reptile,  whose  figure  was  often 
tattooed  on  the  bodies  of  the  members  of  the 
clan.  Each  clan  was  named  from  its  "  totem," 
as  the  clan  of  the  Wolf,  or  Bear,  or  Hawk. 
Members  of  the  same  clan  were  kinsmen,  and 
so  were  forbidden  to  intermarry.  Membership 
in  the  clan  descended  through  the  mother;  that 
is,  the  children  belonged  to  the  clan  and  bore 
the  "totem"  of  their  mother.  Indians  having 
the  same  "totem,"  although  widely  separated 

1  "  Most  Indians  were  desperate  gamblers,  staking  their  all,  —  ornaments,  cloth- 
ing, canoe,  pipes,  weapons,  wives.  A  favorite  game  among  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois 
was  played  with  plum  stones  or  wooden  chips,  black  on  one  side  and  white  on 
the  other.  They  were  tossed  up  in  a  wooden  bowl  by  striking  it  sharply  on  the 
ground,  and  the  players  betted  on  the  black  and  white.  Sometimes  a  village  chal- 
lenged a  neighboring  village.  The  parties  stood  facing  each  other,  while  two 
champion  players  struck  the  bowl  on  the  ground  between  them.  The  bets  ran  high. 
A  French  missionary  relates  that  once  in  midwinter,  with  the  snow  nearly  three  feet 
deep,  the  men  of  a  village  returned  from  a  gambling  visit  bereft  of  their  leggings  and 
barefoot,  yet  in  excellent  humor."  —  Parkman. 


iff. 


ndian  Gravestone 

howing  the  Totem 

of  the  Turtle. 


6  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  speaking  different  dialects,  were   bound  to  relieve  each 
other's  distresses  whenever  occasion  demanded. 

7.  Government.  —  The  Indian  knew  little  of  the  restraints 
of  law  and  government.     Each  tribe  had  its  sachem,  or  peace 
chief.     The  power  of  the  sachem  was  advisory.     There  was  no 
fixed  provision  for  the  punishment  of  crime.     When  a  dispute 
arose  the  Indian  relied  on  his  own  strength  to  maintain  his 
rights.     If  he  failed  in  this  he   applied  for  protection  to  his 
chief,  who  sometimes  inflicted  punishment  with  his  own  hands. 
When    a   murder  was    committed    the    relatives   of   the   slain 
man  were  expected  to  avenge  his  death,  or  at  least  to  secure 
from  the  murderers  payment  of  a  sum  fixed  by  custom  as  the 
price  of  a  life. 

In  time  of  war  the  fighting  men  submitted  to  the  leadership 
of  some  warrior  whose  courage  and  reputation  gave  him  prece- 
dence. This  war  chief  was  sometimes  also  the  sachem,  but 
often  a  different  person. 

8.  Religion.  —  With  no  Bible,  no  priests,  no  temples,  and 
but  vague  notions  of  God,  there  could  be  little  definiteness  or 
system   about  the    Indian's    religious    belief.     To   him    every 
plant,  every  animal,  every  stream  and  lake  had  its  "  Manitou," 
or   incarnate    spirit,    endowed    with    mysterious    power.     The 
bones  of  the  beaver  were  treated  with  tenderness  and  carefully 
kept  from  the  dogs,  lest  the  spirit  of  the  dead  beaver  should 
take   offense.     In  every  tribe  there  was  a  "medicine  man," 
who,  by  arts  of  magic,  professed  to  cure  sickness,  drive  away 
evil   spirits,   and  regulate  the   weather.     Their  dances  had  a 
certain    religious  significance.     The   first    missionaries   found 
no  word  in  any  Indian  language  to  express  our  idea  of  God. 
The  Indian's  notion  of  the  one  Great  Spirit  is  thought  to  have 
been    obtained   from    the   white   settlers.     He    believed  in   a 
future  life,  but  in  the  Indian  hereafter  moral  good  was  not  re- 
warded, nor   was    moral    evil    punished.     Courage    and    skill, 


AMERICA    4OO    YEARS    AGO.  7 

even  in  a  thief  or  murderer,  secured  admission  to  the  "  Happy 
Hunting  Grounds";  while  the  cowardly,  the  stupid,  and  the 
weak  were  doomed  to  eat  serpents  and  ashes,  in  gloomy 
regions  of  shade. 

9.  Indian  Wars. — The  roving  and  jealous  nature  of  the 
Indians,    and    consequent    disputes    over    the    possession    of 
favorite  hunting  grounds,  led  to  constant  warfare  among  the 
tribes.     So  universal  and  so  bitter  were  these  tribal 
antagonisms,  that  combinations  of  tribes,  even  for 

defense  against  a  common  enemy,  were  extremely 
rare.  Occasionally  a  chief  of  powerful  personal 
influence  was  enabled  to  form  a  widespread  "con- 
spiracy "  against  the  white  settlers,  and  thereby 
sweep  whole  settlements  to  destruction.  But  with 
the  death  or  defeat  of  the  leader,  the  league  soon 
fell  to  pieces.  The  tomahawk  (a  rude  stone 
hatchet),  the  scalping  knife,  and  the  bow  and 
arrow  were  the  Indian  weapons  of  warfare  until 
guns  were  procured  from  the  whites.  Night  at- 
tacks, surprises,  and  ambuscades  were  their  favorite  Tomahawk. 
tactics.  The  Indians  never  fought  a  pitched  battle  in  open  field. 

10.  Treatment  of  Captives.  —  Prisoners  taken  in  war  were 
treated  with  horrible  cruelty.     The  unfortunate    captive   was 
often  compelled  to  "  run  the  gauntlet "  between  two  long  lines 
of  his  enemies,  each  of  whom  struck  him  with  a  club  or  knife 
as  he  went  by.     His  tortures  were  frequently  ended  by  death 
at  the  stake.     The  scalp  of  the  victim  was  always  taken  by  his 
slayers,  and  the  reputation  and   influence  of   a  warrior  were 
determined  by  the  number  of  these  bloody  trophies  suspended 
from  his  belt. 

After  the  coming  of  the  whites  the  Indians  frequently  spared 
the  lives  of  captives  in  order  to  demand  a  ransom  from  their 
friends.  Sometimes  a  prisoner  who  happened  to  be  fancied  by 


8  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

one  of  his  captors  was  "  adopted,"  with  elaborate  ceremonies. 
The  captive's  life  was  then  spared,  and  he  became  a  member  of 
the  tribe  of  his  conquerors.  Instances  are  recorded  of  white 
captives,  who,  after  years  spent  among  the  savages  as  adopted 
members  of  the  tribe,  became  so  attached  to  their  associates 
that  they  refused  all  entreaties  of  their  white  relatives  to 
return  to  civilized  life. 

ii.  Relations  with  White  Settlers.  —  The  first  European 
explorers  of  North  America  were  received  with  honor  by  the 
natives,  and  treated  as  superior  beings.  More  than  once  a  white 
settlement  was  saved  from  starvation  by  the'  kindness  of  the 


Wampum,  or  Indian  Money,  made  of  Strings  of  Shells  or  Beads. 

Indians  in  freely  sharing  their  supply  of  food.  As  a  rule,  the 
first  settlers  were  careful  to  purchase  land  from  the  savages 
upon  terms  satisfactory  to  the  latter.  The  Indians  readily 
sold  their  lands  at  what  appear  to  us  ridiculously  low  prices. 
A  blanket,  a  kettle,  a  knife,  a  hatchet,  a  few  trinkets  were 
sufficient  to  purchase  hundreds  of  fertile  acres.  But  we  must 
remember  that  one  of  these  simple  household  articles  might 
transform  the  whole  life  of  a  savage.  To  him,  a  kettle  was  a 
complete  set  of  kitchen  furniture ;  a  blanket  was  an  entire 
wardrobe.  Moreover,  in  his  sale  of  lands  the  Indian  seemed 
to  have  an  imperfect  idea  of  absolute  surrender  of  the  soil. 
He  supposed  he  was  granting  merely  the  right  of  joint 
occupancy.  The  fixed  boundaries  and  palisaded  enclosures  of 
the  lands  sold  to  the  whites  in  time  aroused  the  indignation  of 


AMERICA    4OO    YEARS    AGO.  9 

the  red  man,  as  he  realized  that  his  home  was  gone  from  him 
forever.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  in  many  of  their  land  deal- 
ings with  the  Indians,  the  unscrupulous  action  of  the  white 
settlers  was  a  disgrace  to  Christianity  and  civilization.  The 
Europeans  quarreled  with  each  other  over  rival  titles  to 
the  soil,  totally  ignoring  the  claims  of  the  Indians.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  only  landed  right  recognized  as  belonging 
to  the  savages  was  that  of  giving  up  territory. 

In  most  of  the  English  colonies  efforts  were  made  to 
Christianize  the  savages.  Whether  from  hatred  of  the  white 
man  or  from  the  animal  nature  of  the  Indian,  these  efforts 
met  with  poor  success. 

In  the  conflict  between  European  nations  on  American  soil, 
the  Indian  tribes  were  frequently  secured  as  allies  by  one  side 
or  the  other.  Yet  their  aid,  while  valuable,  was  always  un- 
reliable.1 

12.  Character.  —  In  their  own  wigwams  and  at  their  festi- 
vals, the  Indians  were  often  talkative  and  sociable.  But  on 
most  public  occasions  and  in  the  presence  of  strangers,  they 
were  haughty  and  reserved.  They  prided  themselves  on  their 
self-control.  Surprise,  anger,  grief,  joy,  bodily  pain,  were  ex- 
perienced without  the  slightest  outward  sig'n.  A  wild  love 
of  liberty  and  utter  intolerance  of  control  lay  at  the  basis 
of  their  character.  Courage,  hospitality,  and  loyalty  to  friends 
were  their  redeeming  traits.  At  the  same  time,  they  were 
cunning,  sly,  and  suspicious.  Their  worst  trait  was  the  spirit 

1  The  governor  of  Virginia,  in  a  letter  to  an  English  general  during  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  wrote :  "  I  think  we  have  secured  the  Six  Nations  to  our  interest. 
They  are  a  very  awkward,  dirty  sett  of  People,  yet  absolutely  necessary  to  attack 
the  enemy's  Indians.  They  are  naturally  inclined  to  drink.  It  will  be  a  prudent 
step  to  restrain  them  with  moderation." 

The  French  commander,  Dieskau,  about  the  same  time  thus  expressed  himself 
about  his  savage  allies :  "  They  drive  us  crazy  from  morning  till  night.  One  needs 
the  patience  of  an  angel  to  get  on  with  these  devils,  and  yet  one  must  always  force 
himself  to  seem  pleased  with  them." 


10  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

of  revenge  and  cruelty,  which  made  them  delight  in  slaughter 
and  in  torturing  their  enemies.  That  the  Indian  made  so 
little  progress  in  civilization,  is  due  partly  to  the  extreme  pride 
of  his  nature,  which  acknowledged  no  superior,  and  partly  to 
his  superstitious  imagination,  which  made  him  accept  fanciful 
explanations  of  the  phenomena  of  nature  instead  of  cultivating 
his  power  of  reason  in  their  investigation.  "  If  the  wind  blew 
violently,  it  was  because  the  water  lizard,  which  makes  the 
wind,  had  crawled  out  of  his  pool ;  If  the  lightning  was 
frequent,  it  was  because  the  young  of  the  thunder  bird  were 
restless  in  their  nest."  No  race  ever  offered  greater  obstacles 
to  its  own  improvement. 

13.  The  Modern  Indians.  —  For  two  hundred  years  after 
the   first   permanent    settlement  in  our  country,  Indian  wars 
were    a    source    of  terror   to   the    settlers,  and   influenced  to 
a  great  extent  the  history  of  our  people.     Gradually,  however, 
the   Indians  have  been   driven  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
have  passed  under  the  complete  control  of  the  United  States 
government.     The  total  number  in  the  United  States  to-day  is 
about  three  hundred  thousand.     They  are  found  chiefly  in  the 
Indian    Territory    and    certain    reservations    in    the   western 
states.      Several  million  dollars  are  spent  every  year  by  the 
United  States  government  for  their  support.     The  best  way  to 
care  for  and  control  the  Indians  is  a  problem  still  unsolved. 
A  few  tribes  have  become  civilized  and  Christianized,  but  the 
majority   still   retain   their   roving   disposition    and    thriftless 
habits.     The  presence  of  troops  is  constantly  required  to  quell 
disturbances  that  arise  among  them. 

14.  The  Mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  —  At  various 
places  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  found  immense  mounds  of 
earth    of   peculiar   shape,    which  were    evidently   constructed 
many  centuries  ago.     Some   of  these    mounds  seem  to  have 
been  intended  for  works  of  defense,  others  for  burial  places  or 


AMERICA    4OO    YEARS    AGO.  I  I 

for  religious  purposes.  The  great  amount  of  labor  required  to 
build  such  immense  earthworks,  together  with  the  stone  imple- 
ments, utensils  of  pottery,  and  ornaments  of  copper  they  have 
been  found  to  contain,  seem  to  indicate  that  they  were  con- 


d,  Kanawha,  W.  Va 


structed  by  a  different  race  of  people  from  the  Indians.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  Mound  Builders  occupied  the  country  be- 
fore the  Indians,  and  possessed  some  degree  of  civilization; 
but  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  these  mounds  has  not  yet 
been  solved. 

15.  Summary.  —  Let  the  student  write  in  the  form  of  a  composition  on 
"The  North  American  Indians,"  a  summary  of  what  he  considers  the  most 
important  points  mentioned  in  this  chapter.     He  should  first  read  carefully 
the  entire  chapter,  then  consult  other  sources  of  information.     The  com- 
position may  embrace  such  topics  as  the  origin,  classification,  appearance, 
manner  of  life,  character,  influence,  and  destiny  of  the  Indian. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Encourage  the  pupil  to  bring  into  his  work  "  outside 
information,"  and  to  express  his  own  views.  A  profitable  lesson-period 
may  be  spent  in  the  reading  and  discussion  of  these  compositions,  sup- 
plemented by  the  reading  of  selections  from  Longfellow's  "  Hiawatha," 
Cooper's  "  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  and  Leland's  "Algonquin  Legends  of 
New  England." 

16.  Thought  Questions.  —  Mention  the  names  of  some  famous  Indians, 
and  tell  what  you  can  about  them.     What  tribes  once  inhabited  the  state 
in  which  you  live  ?     Why  did  the  white  settlers  prefer  African  slaves  to 
Indian  slaves  ?     Mention  some  Indian  names  found  in  the  geography  of 
our  country;  some  common  words  borrowed  from  the  Indian  language; 
some  products  of  the  soil  which  the  Indians  taught  the  white  settlers  to  use. 
If  this  continent  had  never  been  discovered  by  white  men,  would  the  con- 
dition of  its  native  inhabitants  to-day  be  better  or  worse  than  it  actually 
is  ?     Give  reasons. 


12 


HISTORY    OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (AMERICA  FOUR  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO). 

Eastern  part :  forest,  small  clearings. 
Beyond  the  Mississippi,  wild  prairies. 
Physical   Features.  -\  Pacific  slope,  mountains,  fertile  valleys. 

Harbors,  rivers,  climate,  soil  fitted  it  for  dense 

population. 

The  Peruvians  of  S.  A. 
The  Aztecs  of  Mexico. 
First  Americans.  «|  Pueblo  tribes  in  Southwest 

Savages   called  Indians  inhabited  most  of  conti 
nent. 

f  Iroquois  —  New  York. 
East        j    Algonquins  —  New  Eng.  to  S.  C. 


Exhibited  rude  civili- 
zation. 


of  Miss.  R. 


Mobilians 


( Creeks, 


Classification    of  J  I  "~         "'"  (  Cherokees,  etc. 

Indian  Tribes.         |  e  Dakotas. 

West      J    Sioux. 
of  Miss.  R.   j   Comanches. 

I  Apaches. 
Personal  Appearance. 

f  Wigwams. 

_  .  ,          Occupation  of  women. 
Home  Life. 


South. 


„ 

Occupation  of  men. 

[  Condition  of  children. 
6-  Totem  :     Its  significance. 

._  f  Sachem. 

7.  Government.  {  War  Chief. 

f  Manitou. 

8.  Religion.  4   Medicine  Man. 

(^  Happy  Hunting  Grounds. 
9-  Indian  Wars.  —  Tribal  Antagonisms  ;  Weapons. 

f  Running  the  gauntlet. 
10.  Treatment  of  Captives.  «j   Scalping. 

[  Adoption  of  captives. 
"•  Relations   with  f  Friendly  at  first. 

Whites.    .        \  Became  hostile  through  encroachments  of  whites. 
12.  Character  of  Indians.  —  Their  good  traits;  their  bad  traits. 

f  West  of  Miss.  R.,  Ind.  Ten,  and  other  reservations. 
!3-  Modern  Indians.  «|   Number:  about  300,000. 

l_  Supported  chiefly  by  U.  S.  Government. 
14-  Mound  Builders. 


PERIOD    OF    DISCOVERY    AND    EXPLORATION. 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS. 

I.     LEIF  ERICSON. 

17.  The  Northmen.  —  Northmen,  or  Norsemen,  is  a  name 
applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 
In  the  earliest  times  these  people  were  noted  as  bold  sailors 
and  fierce  warriors.     Two  branches  of  this  great  family — the 
Danes  and  the  Normans — between  the  eighth  and  the  eleventh 
centuries  overran  England,  and  conquered  that  part  of  France 
called  Normandy.     These   Northmen  and  their  kinsfolk,  the 
Saxons,  were  the  founders  of  the  English  nation.     Most  Ameri- 
cans, as  descendants  of  the   English,  have  some  of  the  old 
Norse  blood  in  their  veins. 

18.  The  Voyage  of  Leif  Ericson — The  island  of  Iceland 
was  settled  by  the  Northmen  at  an  early  day.     From  Iceland 


Norse  Ship  of  Tenth  Century. 

these  Norsemen  made  their  way  to  Greenland,  and  established 
a  few  settlements  in  that  frozen  country.     In  about  the  year 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


1000,  Leif  Ericson,  a  native  of  Iceland,  sailed  from  Greenland 
with  thirty-five  men  in  search  of  a  land  which  a  fellow-country- 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS.  15 

man,  Bjarni,  claimed  to  have  seen  from  his  ship  some  years 
before.  Sailing  to  the  southwest,  Ericson  came  in  sight  of  the 
bleak  shores  of  Labrador.  He  coasted  toward  the  south,  prob- 
ably as  far  as  Massachusetts.  Finding  the  climate  mild  and 
the  country  inviting,  he  landed  and  spent  the  winter.  From 
the  quantity  of  grapes  which  he  found,  he  named  the  country 
Vinland. 

19.  Result  of  Leif  Ericson's  Visit.  —  Leif  Ericson's  discov- 
ery attracted  but  little  attention  among  his  people.     Several 
voyages  were  made  to  the  region  he  had  visited,  but  no  perma- 
nent settlement  was  effected.    The  Northmen  probably  regarded 
Greenland  as  a  part  of  Norway,  and  Vinland  as  an  adjacent 
island.     After  a  while  the  settlements  in  Greenland  perished 
and  were  forgotten.     Except  to  a  few  Northmen,  Ericson's  great 
voyage  was  not  known  and  had  no  effect  upon  the  civilized 
world.     Measured  by  its  results,  Leif  Ericson's  visit  to  America 
had  no  historic  importance. 

20.  The  Norse  Sagas.  —  Authority  for  the  account  of  Leif 
Ericson's  voyage  is  found  chiefly  in  the  "  Norse  Sagas."     The 


Norse   Ruins  in  Greenland. 


Sagas  are  rude  stories,  half  poems,  in  which  the  family  histories 
of  that  early  time  were  preserved.  They  were  at  first  memo- 
rized and  thus  handed  down  from  father  to  son  ,  in  later  years 


i6 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


they  were  committed  to  writing.  Like  the  ballad  literature  of 
early  England,  they  often  contained,  with  much  exaggeration, 
a  solid  basis  of  truth.  The  unquestioned  fact  that  flourishing 
settlements  of  Northmen  existed  in  Greenland,  the  nearness  of 
Greenland  to  the  continent  of  America,  and  the  well-known 
adventurous  spirit  of  the  Norse  sailors,  all  serve  to  confirm  the 
record  of  the  Sagas. 


II.     CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 

21.  The  Times  in  Which  He  Lived. — The  early  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  belongs  to  the  period  known  as  the  "  Dark 


Routes  of  Trade   between   India  and   Cities  of  Southern   Europe. 

Ages "  of  the  world.  Everywhere  the  common  people  were 
oppressed  by  the  nobles,  and  governments  exercised  little  re- 
straint upon  the  rich  and  powerful.  In  southern  Europe  some 
enlightenment  was  found,  but  in  most  lands  dense  ignorance 
prevailed.  There  were  few  schools  and  no  printed  books- 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS.  1 7 

The  maps  of  that  time  show  that  the  shape  and  extent  of  the 
great  continents  of  Africa  and  Asia  were  unknown,  as  was  the 
extent  of  the  seas.  It  was  commonly  believed  that  the  earth 
was  flat.  A  few  learned  men  had  advanced  the  theory  that  its 
shape  was  that  of  a  sphere,  but  the  suggestion  was  generally 
looked  upon  as  absurd.  The  Mediterranean  Sea  was  the  great 


highway  of  commerce,  and  few  ships  ventured  to  sail  beyond 
its  waters.  About  the  middle  of  the  century  printing  was  in- 
vented, and  the  compass  came  into  general  use.  As  books 
became  plentiful  and  cheap,  the  world  began  to  awaken  from 
its  long  sleep  of  ignorance.  Marco  Polo,  an  Italian,  published 
an  account  of  his  travels  in  India  and  China.  His  book  was 
widely  read,  and  directed  the  attention  of  merchants  and  trad- 
ers to  those  distant  lands.  A  profitable  commerce  had  already 


1 8  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

sprung  up  between  India  and  the  cities  of  southern  Europe, 
but  goods  had  to  be  carried  part  of  the  journey  overland,  and 
this  was  expensive,  troublesome,  and  even  dangerous.  The 
great  question  of  the  time  was,  "  Is  there  a  water-route  to 
India  ?  " 

22.  His  Home.  —  Four  hundred  years  ago  Genoa  was  one  of 
the  richest  cities  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.     Situated  on  the 
northwest  shore  of  Italy,  hemmed  in  to  the  sea  by  mountains, 
her  people  devoted  themselves  to  commerce,  and  sailed  their 
ships  to  distant  lands.     In  this  city  Christopher  Columbus  was 
born.     To  a  young  man  of  Genoa  the  sea  was  the  only  road  to 
fame  and  fortune,  and  so  Columbus  at  fourteen  years  of  age 
became  a  sailor.     He  not  only  visited  the  principal  places  on 
the  Mediterranean,  but  sailed  out  into  the  Atlantic,  and  coasted 
along  the  western  shores  of  Europe. 

23.  His  Plan  and  How  He  Came  to  Form  It —  Columbus 
was  attracted  to  Portugal  by  the  fame  of  her  sailors  and  geog- 


* 


This  Map  shows  how  Columbus  (not  knowing  that  America  lay  in  the  way)  hoped  to 
reach  Asia  and  the  East  Indies  by  sailing  West. 

raphers.  In  the  intervals  between  his  voyages,  he  earned  a 
living  in  that  country  by  making  maps  and  charts.  His  trav- 
els and  studies  convinced  him  that  the  earth  was  round,  and 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS.  1 9 

that  the  great  problem  of  a  water-route  to  India  could  be  solved 
by  sailing  west.  He  determined  to  risk  his  life  on  the  unknown 
ocean,  and  prove  by  actual  experiment  what  learned  men  before 
him  had  advanced  as  mere  theory.  There  were  two  errors  in 
his  calculations  that  made  the  proposed  voyage  seem  shorter 
and  less  dangerous  than  it  actually  was.  He  underestimated 
by  several  thousand  miles  the  distance  around  the  earth  ;  and 
he  overestimated  the  size  of  Asia,  making  it  extend  too  far  to 
the  east.  Thus  he  thought  that  a  voyage  of  about  three  thou- 
sand miles  would  bring  him  to  India.  We  know  now  that  this 
was  about  the  distance  to  the  then  undiscovered  continent  of 
America,  while  India  was  more  than  three  times  as  far  as 
Columbus  supposed. 

24.  His  Disappointments.  —  But  Columbus  was  too  poor  to 
hire  a  ship  and  to  employ  sailors  for  so  long  a  voyage.  He 
applied  for  aid  first  to  the 
government  of  his  native  city, 
Genoa.  Failing  there,  he 
next  made  application  to  the 
king  of  Portugal,  a  monarch 
whose  sailors  were  then  ex- 
ploring the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  to  see  how  far  that 
continent  extended,  and  to 
find  out  if  India  could  be 
reached  in  that  way.  King 
John  submitted  the  plan  of 
Columbus  to  a  council  of 
learned  men.  They  declared 
it  absurd.  Not  disheartened, 
Columbus  decided  to  appeal 
to  King  Ferdinand  and  Queen 

Isabella,  sovereigns  of  the  newly-united  kingdoms  of  Arragon 
and  Castile  in  Spain.  These  monarchs  were  in  the  midst  of  a 


2O 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


war  with  the  Moors  on  their  southern  border,  and  had  no  time 
for  the  enterprise.  They  listened  to  Columbus  with  politeness, 
but  put  off  giving  him  a  final  answer.  For  five  years  he  waited 
and  hoped.  At  last,  concluding  that  nothing  could  be  accom- 
plished in  Spain,  he  started  to  leave  the  country. 

25.  Queen  Isabella's  Aid.  —  Before  Columbus  reached  the 
Spanish  frontier,  Queen  Isabella  had  been  induced  to  give  him 
another  hearing.    He  hastened  back,  and  with  all  his  eloquence 
presented  to  the  queen  the  arguments  in  support  of  his  theory, 
picturing  the  glory  and  wealth  which  the  success  of  the  under- 
taking would  bring  to  Spain.    The  noble  and  sympathetic  heart 
of  Isabella  was  touched  by  his  appeal.     It  is  said  she  even 
offered  to  pledge  her  jewels  in  order  to  raise  the  money  to 
buy  and  equip  vessels  for  the  voyage. 

26.  The  Voyage.  —  Three  small   sailing-vessels  were  pro- 
cured, the  largest,  called  the  Santa  Maria,  probably  not  more  than 

63  feet  long  and  20  feet  broad. 
On  Friday,  August  3d,  1492,  the 
little  fleet  set  sail  from  the  har- 
bor of  Palos,  Spain,  amid  the 
tears  and  prayers  of  friends  on 
shore,  who  never  expected  to  see 
their  loved  ones  again.  Colum- 
bus first  sailed  southwest  and 
stopped  at  one  of  the  Canary 
Islands.1  Then  he  struck  boldly 
out  towards  the  west  on  the  un- 
known ocean.  Weeks  passed, 
and  no  land  was  seen.  The  trade- 
winds  bore  them  steadily  onward. 
The  sailors  in  alarm  began  to 

1  On  the  maps  of  Columbus,  Cipango  (Japan),  a  supposed  outlying  island  of 
India,  was  due  west  of  the  Canary  Islands. 


^ceanica^ 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS.  21 

ask,  "  How  can  we  ever  return  in  the  face  of  this  changeless 
wind  ? "  And  then  the  compass  began  to  vary,  the  needle  no 
longer  pointing  toward  the  North  Star.  The  frightened  men 
threatened  to  turn  back.  But  the  courage  of  Columbus  never 
faltered.  By  artifices,  bribes,  and  threats  he  prevailed  upon 
the  sailors  to  continue  on  their  course. 

27.  Discovery  of  America.  —  At  last  a  carved  stick  and 
limbs  of  trees  were  seen  floating  on  the  water.  The  king  and 
queen  had  promised  a  large  sum  of  money  to  the  sailor  who 
should  first  discover  land.  Columbus  added  the  offer  of  a  vel- 


Map  of  Columbus's  Route  on  his  great  Voyage  across  the  Ocean. 

vet  coat.  At  two  o'clock  one  morning,  as  Columbus  was  anx- 
iously looking  out  from  his  ship,  he  saw  far  away  in  the  dis- 
tance a  light  moving  to  and  fro,  like  a  torch  carried  by  some 
one  on  shore.  To  the  great  joy  of  all,  when  daylight  came, 
land  was  seen  —  Friday,  October  i2th,  1492. 

28.  The  New  Land.  —  The  land  proved  to  be  one  of  the 
Bahama  Islands,  possibly  that  now  known  as  Guanahani,  or  Cat 
Island.  Columbus  named  it  San  Salvador  (Holy  Saviour). 
He  landed  and  took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of 
the  king  and  queen  of  Spain.  Believing  that  he  had  reached 
islands  near  the  coast  of  India,  he  called  the  natives  who  came 
crowding  around  him  Indians.  Several  months  were  spent  in 
coasting  among  the  West  India  Islands.  At  last  he  set  out  on 


22  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

his  return,  carrying  with  him  specimens  of  the  strange  plants 
and  savage  men  of  the  lands  he  had  visited. 

29.  His  Return.  —  Columbus's  return  voyage  was  a  stormy 
one.  He  lost  one  of  his  vessels  'and  became  separated  from 
the  other.  Fearing  that  his  ship  might  be  wrecked  and  the 
news  of  his  discovery  forever  lost,  he  wrote  a  full  account  of 
his  voyage  and  sealed  it  in  a  water-tight  cask,  hoping  that  if 
his  vessel  sank  this  cask  might  float  to  land  and  tell  the  story 
of  his  great  achievement.  Finally,  after  an  absence  of  nearly 
eight  months,  his  two  storm-beaten  vessels  reached  once  more 
the  little  harbor  of  Palos.  The  report  that  Columbus  had  re- 
turned alive  and  successful  quickly  spread  and  caused  great 
enthusiasm.  The  king  and  queen  received  him  with  distin- 
guished honor,  and  everywhere  windows  and  balconies  were 
thronged  with  people  eager  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  great  dis- 


30.  Other  Voyages. —  Columbus  made  three  other  voyages. 
He  established  a  settlement  on  the  Island  of  Hayti,  and  ex- 
plored most  of  the  West  India  group.     In  1498  he  discovered 
the  mainland  of  South  America,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco 
River.     He  never  realized,  however,  that  he  had  found  a  new 
continent,  and  died  believing  that  he  had  reached  India  and  its 
outlying  islands. 

31.  Last  Days  of  Columbus. — According  to  agreement  with 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Columbus  was  made  governor  of  the 
lands  he  discovered.      His  Spanish   colonists,  however,  were 
many  of  them  wicked,  lawless  men.     They  hated  Columbus  be- 
cause he  was  an  Italian,  and  they  defied  his  authority.     Finally 
they  succeeded  in  having  him  removed  from  his  office,  and  he 
was  sent  back  to  Spain  in  chains.     Although  he  was  soon  set 
at  liberty,  yet  his  powerful  friends  deserted  him.     The  good 
Queen  Isabella  died,  and  he  was  allowed  to  pass  his  last  days 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS.  2$ 

a  poor  man,  unknown  and  forgotten.  He  was  buried  at  Valla- 
dolid,  Spain  ;  afterward  his  bones  were  removed,  and  they  now 
rest  in  the  Cathedral  at  Havana,  Cuba. 

32.  Results  of  Columbus'.s  Discovery.  —  It  was  years  after 
the  death  of  Columbus  before  people  ceased  to  believe  that  the 
new  lands  were  a  part  of  India.     Yet  to  Christopher  Columbus 
justly  belongs  the  glory  of  discovering  the  "  New  World."     By 
his  genius,  courage,  and  perseverance  he  conquered  the  terrors 
of  the  unknown  sea  and  gave  to  civilization  a  continent.     The 
recently  invented  art  of  printing  spread  the  news  of  his  voy- 
ages.    Sailors  from  all  lands  steered  their  ships  toward  the 
West,  anxious  to  win  fame  and  wealth  by  some  new  discovery. 
Spain,  following  up  the  advantage  Columbus  had  given  her, 
hastened  to  take  possession   of  the  new  country,  and  soon 
became   the    richest   nation    in    the  world.      Intelligent   men 
everywhere  began  to  ask  themselves  whether  other  beliefs  of 
their  time  were  not  as  false  as  had  been  that  of  the  shape  of 
the  earth.     They  determined  to  investigate  for  themselves  the 
right  and  justice  of  long-established  customs.     The  result  was 
a  mighty  impetus  to  the  liberty,  Christianity,  and  enlightenment 
of  mankind. 

III.     JOHN  CABOT. 

33.  His  Plan. — John  Cabot  was  an  Italian  sailor  living  in 
Bristol,  on  the  coast  of  England.     Having  heard  that  Columbus 
had  succeeded  in  reaching  India,  he  concluded  from  a  study  of 
his  maps  that  a  shorter  route  to  that  coveted  land  could  be 
found  by  sailing  to  the  northwest,  instead  of  to  the  southwest, 
as  Columbus  had  done.     He  obtained  from  King  Henry  VII., 
of  England,  permission  to  sail  under  the  English  flag,  and  to 
take  possession  of  any  lands  hitherto  unseen  by  Christian  peo- 
ple.     The   voyage  was  to  be   "at  his   own  proper  cost  and 
charge."     He  was  to  have  exclusive  control  of  the  commerce 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS.  25 

with  the  countries  he  might  discover,  and  was  to  pay  to  the 
king  one-fifth  of  all  the  profits. 

34.  His  Voyage  and  Discovery.  —  In  1497,  John  Cabot  set 
sail  from  Bristol  with  one  small  vessel  and  eighteen  persons. 
His  little  ship  crossed  the  ocean  in  safety,  and   reached  the 
coast  of  Labrador.     Cabot  landed,  and  erecting  a  cross  with 
two  flags,  —  one  of  England,  the  other  of  Venice,  his  native  city, 
—  claimed  the  country  for  the  English  king.     This  was  the  first 
discovery  of  the  mainland  of  America,  and  was  more  than  a 
year  before  Columbus  reached  the  shores  of  South  America. 
Cabot    sailed    along    the    icy    and    barren    coast    until    his 
provisions   gave   out,   and  then   returned   to    England.     (See 
map,  p.  24.) 

35.  The   News  in  England — The  news  that  Cabot  had 
reached  India  and  the  territories  of  the  "Great  Cham"  caused 
excitement  in  England.     He  was  treated  with  honor,  and  was 
known  as  the    "Great  Admiral."       The  king  presented  him 
with  a  small  sum  of  money,  and  promised  him  an  annual  pen- 
sion.    Although  he  had  found  no  gold  nor  seen  any  human 
beings,  yet  he  believed  that  the  famous   Island  of  Cipango 
(Japan),  described  by  Marco  Polo  as  rich  in  gold  and  precious 
jewels,  lay  near  the  land  he  had  reached.     So  he  found  no 
trouble  in  obtaining  permission  to  make  a  second  voyage. 

36.  Sebastian  Cabot's  Explorations.  —  It  is  probable  that 
John  Cabot  died  before  preparations  for  his  second  voyage  were 
completed.     His  son,  Sebastian,  took  charge  of  the  expedition, 
and  with  six  ships  and  three  hundred  men  set  sail  on  the  track 
of  the  former  voyage.     Reaching  the  shores  of  Labrador,  he 
coasted  toward  the  north,  hoping  to  find  a  western  passage 
around  the  land.     At  last  his  course  was  stopped  by  floating 
ice.    Turning  his  ships,  he  followed  the  coast  toward  the  south, 
as  far,  perhaps,  as  North   Carolina.      He  landed  in  several 
places,  and  found  the  country  inhabited  by  Indians.     His  fleet 


26  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

returned  to  England  after  an  absence  of  six  months.1  Sebas- 
tian Cabot,  like  his  father,  believed  that  he  had  explored  the 
coast  of  Asia. 

37.  Result  of  the  Discoveries  of  the  Cabots.  —  John  Cabot 
first  reached  the  mainland   of  America,  and  discovered  what 
was  for  a  hundred  years  the  shortest  route  known  across  the 
Atlantic  (§  68).    After  his  voyage  sailors  were  no  longer  afraid 
to  leave  the  southwesterly  track  of  Columbus,  but  struck  out 
boldly  into  every  part   of   the    ocean.     On   the  discovery  of 
John  Cabot  and  the  explorations  of  his   son,  Sebastian,  were 
based  the  claims  of  England  to  the  continent  of  North  America. 
The  English  were  slow  to  take  possession  of  the  new  country, 
allowing  more  than  a  hundred  years  to  pass  before  a  perma- 
nent  settlement  was    made.     Yet  their  title  to  the   soil  thus 
acquired  was  not  forgotten.     When  we  remember  that  in  later 
years  England  outstripped  all  other  nations  in  the  struggle  for 
ownership  of   North  America,  and  that  now  Englishmen,  or 
their  descendants,   control  the   continent  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
we  can  better  realize  the  great  importance  of  the  discoveries  of 
the  Cabots. 

38.  Summary.  —  Leif  Ericson,  a  Norseman,  in  about  the  year  1000 
sailed  from  Iceland  to  Greenland,  and  thence  to  the  continent  of  America, 
landing  probably  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.     No  permanent  occupancy 
of  the  country  followed.     His  voyage  was  known  only  by  his  own  country- 
men, and  was  soon  forgotten  by  them.     Centuries  afterward  vague  and 
imperfect  accounts  of  Leif  Ericson's  visit  were  found  in  the  Norse  Sagas. 

Christopher  Columbus,  an  Italian  sailor,  believing  in  the  unproved  theory 
of  the  roundness  of  the  earth,  sailed  from  Spain  under  the  authority  of  the 

l  Afterward  Sebastian  Cabot  entered  the  service  of  King  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and 
was  made  Pilot  Major  of  the  Kingdom.  In  his  old  age  he  returned  to  England  and 
was  granted  a  liberal  pension  by  King  Edward  VI.  Unlike  Columbus,  the  Cabots 
wrote  no  account  of  their  voyages,  and  we  have  to  depend  upon  uncertain  reports  of 
conversations  with  Sebastian  Cabot.  Even  the  burial  places  of  these  great  mariners, 
who  gave  to  England  a  continent,  are  unknown. 


THREE    GREAT    VOYAGERS.  2/ 

Spanish  king  and  queen  to  find  a  westerly  route  to  India.  He  reached 
one  of  the  Bahama  Islands  on  October  12,  1492.  On  a  subsequent  voyage, 
six  years  later  (1498),  he  discovered  the  continent  of  South  America,  but 
died  believing  that  he  had  reached  the  coast  of  Asia.  His  voyages  were 
the  means  of  revealing  the  American  continent  to  the  civilized  world. 

John  Cabot,  an  Italian  seaman,  sailing  from  England  under  the  authority 
of  the  king,  first  discovered  the  mainland  of  America  in  1497.  His  son, 
Sebastian,  explored  the  coast  from  Labrador  to  Chesapeake  Bay.  On  their 
discoveries  and  explorations  the  English  claim  to  North  America  was  based. 

39.  Thought  Questions. —  Find  on  the  map  the  home  of  the  Northmen; 
give  two  reasons,  from  the  situation  of  their  country  and  its  climate,  why 
the  Northmen  were  great  sailors.  Measure,  by  a  scale  of  miles,  the  dis- 
tance from  Norway  to  Iceland ;  from  Iceland  to  Greenland ;  from  Green- 
land to  Labrador.  To  what  nation  does  Greenland  now  belong  ?  Did  Leif 
Ericson's  voyage  or  that  of  Columbus  require  the  greater  heroism  ?  Ex- 
plain why.  How  do  you  account  for  the  slight  effect  produced  in  the  Old 
World  by  the  discoveries  of  the  Northmen  ?  If  the  art  of  printing  had 
been  in  use  in  the  year  1000,  what  might  have  been  the  result?  Debate : 
Resolved  that  Leif  Ericson  rather  than  Columbus  should  be  called  the  dis- 
coverer of  America.  Show  how  Marco  Polo's  description  of  the  wealth  of 
India  hastened  the  discovery  of  America.  Which  of  the  great  discov- 
erers were  Italian?  Why  were  they  not  employed  by  their  own  govern- 
ment ?  How  did  the  United  States  celebrate  the  4ooth  anniversary  of 
Columbus's  discovery? 

Copy  and  fill  out  the  following  tabular  statement ;  write  as  many  "  Re- 
sults "  as  you  can,  and  underline  the  most  important : 


THE  THREE  GREAT  VOYAGERS. 


NAMB. 

Native 
Country. 

Government 
(if  any) 
authorizing 
voyage. 

Date  of 
Discovery. 

Land  Dis- 
covered. 

RESULTS. 

Leif  Ericson 

Christopher  Columbus 

John  Cabot 

28  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (THE  GREAT  VOYAGERS). 

f  Home. 
1    17.  His  People.  4    „ 

L  Achievements. 

f   Object. 

J    Equipment. 
1 8.  Voyage.   4    . 

I    Route. 

[   Discovery. 

19-  Results.    |   Upon  his  own  country. 
[   Upon  civilized  world. 

20.  Norse  Sagas. 

f          r>     A-4--        f  Ignorance  of  geography. 

21.  condition  I  — ,     .     ,    ... 

of  his  Time,  j  ff vlval  of  learn-g: 
I   Water-route  to  India. 


.f 
Early  life. 

f  His  belief. 
23.  His  Plan.  4  _ 

l_  Errors  in  his  calculations. 


24.  His  Disap- 
pointments. 


His  native  city. 

King  John  of  Portugal. 


Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain. 
25.  Success.     Queen  Isabella's  aid. 

{Equipment ;  start. 
Course. 
Discouragements. 

o     ...  f  Land  sighted. 

27,  28.  Discovery.     •{    r 

\  Claim  made. 

.  f  Stormy  weather. 

29.  The  Return.  •!  „ 

[^  Reception  in  Spain. 

30.  Three  Other    f  Settlement  on  Hayti. 

Voyages.      \  South  America  discovered. 

31.  Last  Days.     His  poverty ;  his  grave. 

J  A  new  world  revealed. 
'    \  Enlightenment  of  mankind  hastened. 

f  Nativity  and  home. 

33.  John  Cabot.    |  Conditions  of  his  yoyage 

f  Equipment. 

34.  His  Voyage.    {  Land  discovered. 

36.  Sebastian  Cabot.    Voyage  and  explorations. 

J  Shorter  route  across  Atlantic. 

37.  Results.     |  Bagis  of  £ngland,s  daim 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  2Q 

EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS. 

THE  NAME  OF  THE  CONTINENT. 

40.  Some  years  after  Columbus'  discovery,  Amerigo  Vespucci 
(called  in  Latin,   Americus  Vesputius),  an  Italian  navigator, 
employed  first  by  Spain,  afterward  by  Portugal,  made  several 
voyages  to  the  New  World.     While  in  the  service  of  Portugal, 
in  1501,  Vespucci  explored  the  coast  of  Brazil  far  enough  to 
discover   that   that    country  was    not   part    of    India,   as    the 
northern  lands  visited  by  Columbus  and  the  Cabots  were  still 
supposed  to  be.     His  explorations  proved  the  existence  of  a 
new  continent  in  the  southern  hemisphere.     The  news  created 
almost  as  great  an  impression  in  the  Old  World  as  had  Colum- 
bus' supposed  discovery  of  a  western  route  to  Asia.     Miiller,  a 
German  printer,  who  published  Vespucci's  description  of  this 
new  southern  continent,  suggested  that  the  country  be  called 
"Terra  Americi,"  the  Land  of  Americus.     The  suggestion  was 
seized  upon  by  geographers,  and  the  name  America,  first  re- 
stricted to  South  America,  was  afterward  applied  to  the  entire 
continent. 

SPANISH  EXPLORATIONS. 

41.  Spain's  Advantage.  —  The   discoveries   of   Columbus 
were  magnificent   triumphs   for  Spain,   and  gave  her  an   ad- 
vantage over  the  other  nations  of  Europe  in  the  race  of  dis- 
covery   and    exploration    that    now   followed.     Portugal   was 
Spain's   greatest    rival    on    the    seas.     To    prevent    the   two 
nations  from  quarreling  over  the  new  lands  in  the  west,  the 
Pope  issued  a  decree  fixing  a  dividing  line  between  their  pos- 
sessions.    He    selected  a  meridian  370  leagues  west  of    the 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  declared  that  all  heathen  lands  west 
of   this    meridian    should  belong  to  Spain ;  all  east  of   it,  to 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Portugal.  (See,  from  map,  page  24,  how  this  decision  was  an- 
other point  in  Spain's  favor.)  Every  bold  Spanish  captain 
was  now  eager  to  win  wealth  and  distinction  by  the  conquest 
of  new  countries  for  his  sovereign.  Inspired  by  the  heroic 
example  of  Columbus,  they  despised  the  fears  that  so  recently 


Spanish  Explorations. 

chilled   the  bravest  hearts.     Not  strange  seas,  nor   trackless 
forests,  nor  hostile  savages  could  check  these  daring  explorers. 

42.  Florida  Discovered.  —  Ponce  de  Leon  had  accom- 
panied Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  and  was  afterward 
made  governor  of  one  of  the  West  India  Islands.  Having 
been  deposed  from  his  office,  the  old  man  brooded  over  his  dis- 
grace, and  longed  for  the  strength  and  glory  of  his  younger 
days.  The  Indians  had  told  him  that  in  the  distant  lands 
across  the  sea  was  a  spring  that  could  make  forever  young 
those  who  bathed  in  its  waters.  De  Leon  believed  the  story, 
and  at  his  own  expense  fitted  out  an  expedition  to  search  for 
the  wonderful  fountain.  On  Easter  Sunday,  1512,  he  came  in 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  31 

sight   of    land,    which  he    named    Florida,  from  the  Spanish 
Pascua  Florida  (Flowery  Easter). 

Years  afterward  he  returned  to  establish  a  colony.  His 
men  were  attacked  so  fiercely  by  the  Indians  that  they  had  to 
hurry  to  their  ships,  and  Ponce  de  Leon  was  mortally  wounded 
by  an  arrow.  Sad  that  the  old  man  should  receive  his  death 
wound  in  the  beautiful  land  where  he  had  expected  to  gain  im- 
mortal youth  ! 

43.  The  Pacific  Ocean Balboa,  another  Spanish  explorer, 

sailed  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  heard  from  the  Indians 
of  a  great  sea  which  lay  beyond  the   lands  he  had  touched. 
With  a   small  band   of  soldiers,  he  .boldly   set   out  through 
forests   and   across    mountains    toward   the    interior    of    the 
country.     At  last,  from  the  top  of  a  mountain  peak,  he  caught 
sight  of  the  blue  waves  of  a  great  ocean.     Reaching  the  shore, 
Balboa  waded  into  the  water,  and  waving  his  sword  above  his 
head,  claimed  for  the    king  of  Spain  the  ocean  and  all  the 
lands  it  touched  (1513).     His  discovery  proved  North  America 
to  be  a  separate  continent,  and  not  a  part  of  Asia.1 

44.  The    World    Circumnavigated Seven    years    later 

(1520),  Magellan,  a  Portuguese  sailor  in  the  service  of  Spain, 
coasting   along  the    southern  part  of  South   America,  passed 
through  the  straits  that  bear  his  name,  and  sailed  upon  the 
ocean  which  Balboa  had  discovered.      Magellan  gave  the  name 
Pacific  to  the  great  ocean  because  he  found  it  so  peaceful  dur- 
ing  his   voyage.     Landing    on    the   western    coast   of    South 
America,  he  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Indians.     His  men, 
continuing  the  voyage,  crossed  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans, 
rounded    the  Cape    of    Good    Hope,    and  reached    Spain    in 
safety.    This  was  the  first  circumnavigation  of  the  globe.     The 
question  of  the  shape  of  the  earth  was  thus  settled  forever, 

1  As  to  South  America  see  §  40. 


32  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  a  western  route  to  India  was  found  at  last, 
page  24.) 


(See  map, 


45.  Conquest  of  Florida  --  Ferdinand  de  Soto  had  been  a 
soldier  under  Pizarro  in  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Peru.  Re- 
turning to  Spain,  he  was  ambitious  to  rival  the  exploits  of  his 
former  leader.  The  name  of  Florida  was  at  that  time  given  to 
the  whole  of  the  southern  part  of  what  is  now  the  United 


De  Soto's  Expedition,    1539-1542. 
(The  outlines  and  names  of  States  are  given  for 
acing  De  Soto's  course.) 


States.  De  Soto  determined  to  explore  this  vast  region  in  the 
hope  of  finding  gold.  Landing  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
peninsula  of  Florida,  he  sent  his  ships  back,  and  with  600 
men,  started  through  the  forests  and  swamps  toward  the 
north.  His  men  were  dressed  in  gay  uniforms  and  mounted 
on  fine  horses.  They  were  supplied  with  every  kind  of 
weapon  then  known,  and  besides  took  with  them  bloodhounds 
to  use  against  the  Indians  and  chains  to  bind  their  captives. 
For  three  years  De  Soto's  band  wandered  through  the  present 
states  of  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  in  the 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  33 

vain  search  for  gold  —  their  numbers   constantly  diminishing 
from  attacks  of  the  Indians  and  from  wasting  sickness. 

46.  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi.  —  At  last,  in  1541,  De 
Soto  came  in  sight  of  the  Mississippi  River  near  where  the  city 
of  Memphis  now  stands.     For  the  first  time  the  upper  course 
of  the  great  "  Father  of  Waters "  was  seen  by  a  white  man.1 
Exposure  and  repeated  disappointments,  however,  had  broken 
the  health  and  spirits  of  the  adventurous  Spaniard,  and  he  died 
the  next  year.     The  Indians  had  feared  De  Soto,  and  to  con- 
ceal his  death  from  them,  his  body  was  buried  at  midnight  in 
the  mighty  river  he  had  discovered.      His  men  wandered,  and 
probably  entered  the  present  State  of  Texas ;  then  returning  to 
the  river,  they  floated  down  to  the  Gulf,  finally  reaching  the 
Spanish  settlements  in  Mexico. 

47.  Explorations  in  the  West.  —  While  Magellan  was  mak- 
ing his  famous  voyage  around  the  world,  Mexico  with  its  rich 
mines  and  ancient  civilization   (§  2)  was  being  conquered  by 
the  Spanish  general,  Cortez.     From  Mexico  expeditions  were 
sent  out  to  explore  the  country  to  the  north.     Coronado  was 
the  most  prominent  explorer  of  this  region.      California  was 
visited  and  the  Pacific  coast  explored  as  far  north  as  Oregon. 

48.  Texas  was  traversed   from  the  Gulf  of   Mexico  to  its 
northwestern  boundary  in  1528  by  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  three 
companions,  the  sole  survivors  of  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
explore  Florida.      Having  lost  their  ships  off  the  Florida  coast, 
they  built  a  few  rude  boats  and  coasted  along  the  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  until  they  reached  Texas.     They  landed  some- 
where near  Galveston  Island  and  passed  through  the  country 
northwest  as  far  as  the  Rio  Grande   River.      Proceeding  to- 

1  Recent  investigations  indicate  that  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  was  entered  in 
1519  by  Alvarez  de  Pineda,  an  explorer  of  the  Gulf  coast. 


34 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


ward  the  Pacific  coast,  they  were  met  by  some  Spanish  soldiers 
who  escorted  them  to  the  city  of  Mexico. 

49.  The  First  Permanent  Settlement.  —  Pedro  Menendez, 
hearing  that  a  company  of  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants, 
had  formed  a  settlement  on  the  St.  Johns  River  in  Florida, 
resolved  to  expel  the  intruders  and  colonize  the  country  for 
the  king  of  Spain.  He  set  sail  with  a  large  fleet  and  over 
two  thousand  people.  Landing  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
Florida,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  town  which  he  called  St. 
Augustine.  This  was  in  the  year  1565,  and  is  important,  as  it 

marks  the  first  per- 
manent European 
settlement  within 
the  present  limits 
of  the  United 
States.  Some  of 
the  old  stone 
houses  built  by 
Menendez'  men 
over  three  hundred 
years  ago  are  still 
standing. 

Pushing  through 
the  woods  with  a 
band  of  soldiers, 
Menendez  surprised  the  French  fort  and  put  to  death  the  help- 
less garrison.  Above  the  mangled  corpses  this  inscription  was 
placed  :  "  Not  as  to  Frenchmen,  but  as  to  heretics."  When 
the  news  of  the  massacre  reached  France,  a  brave  Frenchman 
named  Gourges  resolved  to  avenge  the  deed.  He  sold  his 
property,  purchased  ships,  and  with  one  hundred  and  fifty 
men  sailed  secretly  to  Florida.  A  Spanish  fort  near  the  ruins 
of  the  former  French  settlement  was  surprised  and  taken,  and 


Old  Spanish  Gateway  at  St.  Augustine. 
(Called  the  "City  Gate.") 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  35 

its  garrison  hung  from  the  surrounding  trees  with  this  inscrip- 
tion above  them:  "  Not  as  to  Spaniards,  but  as  to  murderers." 
Gourges  did  not  have  enough  men  to  warrant  an  attack  on  St. 
Augustine,  so  he  sailed  back  to  France. 

50.  Other  Settlements.  —  Before  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  other  Spanish  settlements  were  made  at  Ysleta,1  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  near  El  Paso,  Texas,  and  at  Santa  Fe,  New  Mex- 
ico.    The  gold  mines  of  Mexico  and   Peru  now  became  so 
attractive  to  the  Spaniards  that  they  made  little  effort  afterward 
to  extend  their  explorations  or  settlements. 

51.  Extent  of  Spanish  Claims — By  virtue  of  the  discov- 
eries of  Columbus  and  the  grant  of  the  Pope,  Spain  made  a 
general  claim  to  the  whole  of  the  continent  of  America,  save 
Brazil,  which  she  conceded  to  Portugal  (§41).    A  more  definite 
claim  was  made  to  the  region  then  known  as  Florida  (embra- 
cing all  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States)  and  to  the 
Pacific  coast.      The   Spanish  explorers,   De  Leon,   De   Soto, 
Coronado,   and  others,  had  traversed  this    territory  and  had 
established,  as  they  claimed,  the  right  of  Spain  to  its  owner- 
ship.    The  period  of  Spanish  explorations  in  North  America 
covered  about  a  hundred  years,  from  1492  to  the  close  of  the 
next  century. 


FRENCH  EXPLORATIONS. 

52.  The  Newfoundland  Fisheries.  —  When  the  Cabots  re- 
turned from  their  great  voyages  of  discovery,  they  reported  that 
the  northern  shores  they  had  visited  swarmed  with  fish  to  such 
an  extent  as  sometimes  to  stay  the  speed  of  their  ships.  The 
men  of  Brittany,  in  France,  were  hardy  sailors  and  great  fisher- 

1  There  is  some  ground  for  the  claim  that  the  settlement  at  Ysleta  was  made  before 
that  at  St.  Augustine. 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


men,  and  in  a  few  years  after  the  news  of  Cabot's  voyage 
reached  France  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  began  to  be  fre- 
quented by  French  fishing-vessels.  Cape  Breton  Island  was 
named  in  honor  of  the  home  of  these  fishermen.  The  fisheries 
and  the  fur  trade  with  the 
Indians  proved  so  profitable 
that  the  attention  of  the 
French  people  was  directed 
to  this  part  of  America,  and 
the  way  was  paved  for  the 


French    occupa- 
tion of  Canada. 

53.  The  At- 
lantic Coast. — 
Twenty-seven 
years  after  Ca- 
bot's discovery 
of  the  continent, 
nearly  the  same 
extent  of  coast 
from  Nova  Sco- 
tia to  Chesa- 
peake Bay  was 
explored  by  Ver- 
azzani,  an  Italian  in  the  French  service  (1524).  Verazzani 
claimed  the  country  for  the  French  king,  and  named  it  New 
France,  ignoring  the  claims  of  England. 


EXPLORATIONS  AND  SETTLEMENTS.          37 

54.  The  St.  Lawrence  River — Cartier,  a  native  French- 
man, on  the  day  known  to  the  Catholics  as  St.  Lawrence  Day, 
entered   a   gulf  which    he    called    the  Gulf  of   St.  Lawrence 
(1535).     He  ascended  the  stream  now  known  as  the  St.  Law- 
rence River,  and  took  possession  of  the  country  for  the   king 
of  France.     On  a  subsequent  voyage  he  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  found  a  colony.     Many  years  afterward  the  land 
which  Cartier  then  claimed  for  his    king    became  the  great 
French  stronghold  in  America. 

55.  Attempts  at  Settlement  in  the  South. —  The  French 
Huguenots  made  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  plant  colonies  : 
one  in   South  Carolina,   the  other  in   Florida.     The   settlers 
called  the  first  settlement  Carolina  in  honor  of  the  French  King 
Charles,  or  Carolus  IX.    When  their  provisions  were  exhausted, 
they  abandoned  their  fort  and  sailed  back  to  France.     The 
Florida  colony  on  the  St.  Johns  River  was  attacked  by  the 
Spaniards  under  Menendez  (§  49),  and  all  the  settlers  were 
massacred. 

56.  The  First  Permanent  Settlement. —  Civil  wars  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics  so  distracted  the  people  of  France 
that  it  was  more  than  fifty  years  after  Cartier's  unsuccessful 
colony  on  the  St.  Lawrence  before  another  attempt  was  made 
to  establish  a  French  settlement  in  this  region.     In  1605,  De 
Monts  received  from  the  French  king,  for  the  purpose  of  fur 
trade,  a  grant  of  land  lying  between  the  fortieth  and  forty- 
sixth  parallels  (from  New  Jersey  to  Nova  Scotia).     He  estab- 
lished a  colony  at  Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis),  Nova  Scotia. 
This  was  the  first  permanent   French  settlement  in  America. 

A  more  important  settlement  was  made  three  years  later 
(1608)  by  Champlain  at  Quebec.  The  founding  of  Quebec 
marks  the  beginning  of  French  occupancy  of  Canada.  The 
settlement  soon  became  a  city,  and  was  the  capital  of  the 
French  possessions  in  America. 


84984 


38  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

57.  The  Great  Lakes.— The  French  fur  traders  and  trap- 
pers gradually  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence.  Keeping  on  good 
terms  with  the  Indians,  they  pushed  along  the  shores  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  until  a  line  of  trading-posts  was  established  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  Superior.  To  the  heroism  of  the 
missionaries  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  conquest  of  the 
vast  lake  region  for  France  is  largely  due.  Their  patient  en- 
durance and  their  self-devotion  won  the  respect  and  affection 

of  the  Indians,  and  gave 
to  the  French  an  influence 
over  the  savage  tribes  that 
was  possessed  by  no  other 
people. 

58.  The  Mississippi 
Valley.- —  It  was  more  than 
a  hundred  years  after  De 
Soto's  discovery  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi before  the  mighty 
river  was  again  visited  by 
a  white  man.  The  upper 
course  of  the  stream  was 
u  Sa||e  finally  reached  by  French 

missionaries    and    traders 

from  the  Great  Lakes.  In  1682,  La  Salle,  an  explorer  of 
the  Great  Lake  region,  resolved  to  sail  down  the  Mississippi 
to  its  mouth,  hoping  to  discover,  by  means  of  the  great  river, 
a  passage  across  the  continent  to  India  ;  or,  in  any  event,  to 
establish  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  thus  securing  con- 
trol of  its  commerce  as  well  as  possession  of  the  country  for  his 
king.  Floating  down  the  river  with  a  few  companions,  he 
reached  the  broad  bosom  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  La  Salle  was 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  his  achievement,  as  with 
solemn  ceremonies  he  claimed  for  the  crown  of  France  all  the 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  39 

country  drained  by  the  great  river  and  its  tributaries.  He 
named  the  vast  region  Louisiana,  in  honor  of  Louis  XIV. 

La  Salle  resolved  to  plant  a  French  colony  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi.  Returning  to  France,  he  told  his  story  to  the 
King.  Four  ships  were  given  him,  with  men  and  supplies,  to 
establish  the  settlement  he  desired.  Sailing  back  by  way  of 
Florida,  he  missed  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  landed  at 
Matagorda  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Texas  (1685).  After  several 
vain  attempts  to  reach  the  Mississippi  by  land,  La  Salle  was 
assassinated  by  one  of  his  own  men.  A  settlement  made  by 
his  followers  on  the  Texas  coast  perished. 

The  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  was  again  visited  in  1699  by 
Iberville,  who  made  a  settlement  at  Biloxi,  in  the  present  State 
of  Mississippi,  afterwards  removing  it  to  Mobile.  New  Orleans 
was  founded  in  1718. 

59.  Extent  of  French  Claims.  —  After  the  failure  of  the 
French  settlements  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida,  the  French 
claim  to  the  Atlantic  coast  south  of  the  Penobscot  River,  based 
on  Verazzani's  explorations,  was  abandoned  to  other  nations. 
The  explorations  of  Cartier,  De  Monts,  Champlain,  La  Salle, 
and  the  French  missionaries  and  traders  gave  to  France  pos- 
session of  a  vast  crescent-shaped  region  from  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  to  Lake  Superior,  thence  down  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, from  the  source  of  the  river  to  its  mouth.     The  French 
continued  their  explorations  in  this  territory  until  their  posses- 
sions in  America  were  wrested  from  them  by  the  English  in 
1763  (§  202). 

ENGLISH  EXPLORATIONS. 

60.  Indifference  of  the  English.  —  After  the  discoveries  of 
the  Cabots  the  English  lagged  behind  the  Spanish  and  French 
in  the  exploration  of  the  New  World.     They  were  disappointed 
at  the  failure  to  find  the  gold,  silks,  and  spices  of  India.     More- 


4O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

over,  the  Catholic  sovereigns  of  England  hesitated  to  set  aside 
the  Pope's  decree  giving  the  new  continent  to  Spain.  Until 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  nearly  a  hundred  years  after  the 
Cabots'  great  voyages,  no  other  noteworthy  attempt  at  explora- 
tion of  the  western  continent  was  made  by  the  English. 

61.  Description  of  the  Florida  Coast. —  Sir  John  Hawkins 
was  an  English  sailor  and  slave-trader,  who  was  knighted  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  as  a  reward  for  his  services  in  a  great  naval 
battle  with  the  Spaniards.     On  one  of  his  slave-trading  expedi- 
tions he  sailed  along  the  whole  coast  of  Florida.     This  was  in 
the  same  year  as  the  founding  of  St.  Augustine.     Delighted,  as 
Ponce  de  Leon  had  been,  with  the  beauty  of  the  country,  he 
wrote  a  full,  and  careful  description  of  it,  and  took  back  with 
him  samples  of  tobacco,  potatoes,  and  other  products  of  the 
soil.     This  was  the  first  account  of  Florida  by  an  Englishman.1 
Hawkins  hoped  to  draw  the  attention  of  his  countrymen  to  this 
beautiful  region,  that  English  colonies  might  be  planted  there. 
Attempting  to  reach  Florida  on  a  subsequent  voyage,  he  was 
driven  by  storm  to  the  Mexican  coast,  where  he  was  attacked 
by  a  Spanish  fleet,  and  all  but  two  of  his  ships  were  captured 
or  destroyed. 

62.  Sir    Francis    Drake    and  the    Pacific   Coast.  —  Sir 
Francis  Drake  had  served  under  Sir  John  Hawkins,  and  was 
commander  of   one  of  the  two   ships  that  barely  escaped  the 
Spaniards  on  the  coast  of  Mexico.     From  that  day  he  swore 
vengeance  on  the  subjects  of  Spain.     Setting  sail  from  Eng- 
land with  two  vessels,  Drake  attacked  one  Spanish  settlement 
after  another.     He  landed  on  the  Isthmus  of   Panama,  and 

1  In  Hawkins's  narrative  appears  the  following  quaint  mention  of  the  use  of  to- 
bacco :  "  The  Floridians,  when  they  travel,  have  a  kinde  of  herbe  dryed,  which,  with 
a  cane  and  an  earthen  cup  in  the  end,  with  fire,  and  the  dryed  herbs  put  together,  do 
sucke  thro  the  cane  the  smoke  thereof,  which  smoke  satisfyeth  their  hunger,  and 
therewith  they  live  four  or  five  days  without  meat  or  drink" 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS. 


from  near  the  spot  where  Balboa  made  his  great  discovery, 
caught  sight  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Falling  on  his  knees,  he 
prayed  that  he  might  at  some  time  sail  a  ship  on  that  sea. 
On  his  next  voyage,  with  a  larger  fleet,  Drake  sailed  through 
the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  out  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


English   Explorations. 

Many  Spanish  ships  loaded  with  treasures  from  the  mines  of 
Peru  fell  into  his  hands.1  Coasting  toward  the  north  as  far  as 
California,  he  entered  a  "  convenient  and  fit  harbor  "  (probably 
San  Francisco  Bay).  He  found  the  natives  very  friendly.  They 
insisted  on  crowning  Drake  as  their  king,  and  he  modestly 
accepted  the  honor  for  the  queen  of  England,  naming  the 

1  One  treasure-ship  alone,  captured  by  Drake,  was  valued  by  the  Spaniards  at 
three  million  dollars.  The  memory  of  the  English  "  Dragon,"  as  he  was  called,  was 
detested  by  the  Spaniards  for  centuries  afterward. 


42  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

country  New  Albion.  He  returned  to  England  by  way  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  reached  his  home  in  September, 
1580.  On  this  long  and  perilous  voyage  Drake  had  inflicted 
untold  injury  on  his  enemies,  the  Spaniards,  had  planted  the 
English  flag  in  regions  before  unexplored,  and  had  made  the 
second  circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

63.  The  Old  Problem. — The  hope  of    finding  a  western 
route   from    England    to    India    had   not    been    abandoned. 
Vespucci,  Balboa,  and  Magellan  had  proved  that  America  was 
not  a  part  of  Asia.     Yet  it  was  for  a  long  time  afterward  be- 
lieved that  the  New  World  was  a  group  of  large  islands,  and 
that  a  passage  could  be  found  through  them  to  the  Pacific.     A 
Portuguese  sailor,  Da  Gama,  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury had  rounded  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa   and  dis- 
covered for  his  nation  a  route  to  India  in  that  way.     (See  map, 
p.  24.)     Magellan,  sailing  under  the  Spanish  flag,  passed  around 
Cape  Horn,  and  thus  opened  up  to  the  Spaniards  a  passage 
to  the  coveted  land.     Ineffectual  attempts  were  made  by  the 
English  to  find  a  northeast  passage  around  the  northern  coast 
of  Europe. 

64.  The  Northwest  Passage.  —  In  the  efforts  to  find  a  pas- 
sage to  India  around  the  northern  extremity  of  America;  the 
English  took  the  lead.     Martin  Frobisher   made    three  expe- 
ditions   with   the    twofold   purpose    of    finding   a   northwest 
passage  and  of  searching  for  gold.      He  discovered  the  bay 
now  known  as  Frobisher's  Bay  and  brought  back  to  England 
more  than  thirteen  hundred  tons  of  yellowish  ore,  which  proved 
to  be  of  little  value  (1576). 

Captain  John  Davis  sailed  into  the  strait  which  now  bears 
his  name,  but  was  compelled  by  the  severe  weather  to  return 
to  England  (1585). 

Henry  Hudson  entered  the  great  bay  whose  name  now  pre- 
serves his  memory  (1610).  For  eight  months  his  ship  was 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS. 


43 


locked  in  by  ice.  A  mutiny  then  occurred,  and  Hudson  with 
a  few  companions  was  set  adrift  in  an  open  boat  and  never 
heard  of  afterward.1 

William  Baffin,  with  a  crew  of  seventeen  men,  coasted 
along  the  western  shore  of  Greenland,  and  (in  1616)  entered 
the  great  sea  since  known  as  Baffin's  Bay. 

(In  1850  the  English  Captain  McClure  discovered  a  "north- 
west passage  "  ;  the  ice,  however,  makes  it  useless.) 

65.  First  Attempt  at  Colonization.  —  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert 
was  the  first  Englishman  to  secure  a  charter1  for  colonizing  the 
New  World.     He  made  two  unsuccessful  expeditions  with  this 
purpose,  the  first  in  1578.     On  his  second  voyage,  five  years 
later,  he  took  possession  of  Newfoundland,  but,  meeting  with 
disaster,  started  homeward  without  making  a  settlement.     The 
ship  in   which   he  sailed  went  down    in   a  storm  with  all  on 
board.     He  had  refused  to  return  in  a  larger  vessel,  remarking 
to  the  captain,  "  It  is  as  near  to  Heaven  by  sea  as  by  land." 

66.  Second  Attempt  at  Colonization.  —  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
was     a    favQrite    of    Queen 

Elizabeth.  He  obtained  a 
charter  for  colonizing  all  the 
country  between  the  parallels 
of  thirty-five  and  forty-five 
degrees  (from  South  Carolina 
to  Nova  Scotia),  and  fitted 
out  two  ships  for  an  explor- 
ing expedition  to  find  a  suit- 
able location.  The  queen 
positively  forbade  him  to  join 
the  expedition  himself,  as  she 
was  unwilling  for  her  favorite  Raleigh. 

1  While  in  the  employ  of  the  Dutch  the  previous  year  Hudson  had  discovered  the 
river  now  known  as  Hudson  River  (§  72). 


44  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COU.NTRY. 

to  risk  his  life  in  "  dangerous  sea-fights."  His  vessel  landed  at 
Roanoke  Island  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  (1584).  The 
men  were  charmed  with  the  magnificent  trees,  the  abundant 
grapes,  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  They  carried  back  glow- 
ing accounts  of  the  adaptability  of  the  country  for  settlement. 

67.  Settlements  on  Roanoke  Island. — The  country  was 
named  Virginia,  in  honor  of  Elizabeth,  the  Virgin  Queen.  Be- 
fore the  close  of  the  century  Raleigh  made  two  attempts  to 
establish  a  settlement.  The  first  colony  remained  a  year  on 
Roanoke  Island  and  then,  provisions  giving  out,  returned  to 
England  in  one  of  the  ships  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  hap- 
pened to  be  coasting  that  way.  The  second  expedition  set 
sail  for  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  also  landed  on  Roanoke  Island 
(1587).  No  communication  was  had  with  England  by  the  little 
colony  for  three  years.  Finally,  when  relief  was  sent  to  them, 
the  settlement  was  in  ruins  and  no  traces  of  the  colonists 
could  be  found  save  the  word  CROATOAN l  carved  on  a  tree 
near  by.  Whether  they  had  been  murdered  by  the  Indians  or 
had  wandered  into  the  wilderness  to  starve  is  not  known 

Raleigh,  having  spent  a  large  fortune  in  these  unsuccessful 
enterprises,  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  colonization  of 
Virginia.  He  wrote  to  a  friend,  however,  "  I  shall  yet  live  to 
see  it  an  English  nation."  Although  his  efforts  at  coloniza- 
tion were  failures,  yet  he  had  drawn  the  attention  of  his 
countrymen  to  Virginia  as  a  region  adapted  to  settlement. 
The  founding  of  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in 
America,  twenty  years  later,  was  partly  the  result  of  his  labors.2 

1  Croatoan  was  the  name  of  a  small  island  a  few  miles  distant.     It  is  possible 
that  the  Colonists  perished  in  an  attempt  to  remove  to  this  island. 

2  From  his  returned  colonists  Raleigh  learned  the  use  of  tobacco,  and  introduced 
it  at  the  English  court.    The  custom  of  smoking  or  "  drinking  "  tobacco,  as  it  was 
called,  soon  became  general  in  England.     Raleigh  also  planted  some  specimens  of 
the  potato  on  his  Irish  estates,  and  thus  brought  this  important  article  of  food  into 
general  use.     See  §  61,  footnote. 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  45 

68.  Third  Attempt  at  Colonization.  —  Bartholomew   Gos- 
nold  in  1602  sailed  from  England  in  a  small  ship  with  twenty- 
three   persons,    eleven    of    whom   expected    to    remain    and 
establish  a   colony.     He  took  the  most  direct  course  across 
the  Atlantic — between  the  northern  route  of  the  Cabots  and 
the  southern  pathway  of  the  Spaniards  —  thereby  shortening 
the  distance  a  thousand  miles   (§   37).      Coasting   along   the 
shores   of   New  England,  he  loaded  his    ship  with  sassafras 
and  cedar.     A  quarrel  arose  among  his  men,  and  all  idea  of 
a  settlement  was  abandoned.     Returning  to  England,  his  cargo 
was  seized  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  because  the  expedition  had 
been  undertaken  without  his  consent  and  in  violation  of  his 
"patent  "  or  grant  to  Virginia  (§  66). 

69.  First  Permanent  English  Settlement.  —  A  commercial 
company,  known  as  the  "London  Company,"  obtained  from 
King  James  I.  a  grant  to  the  region  embraced  in  Raleigh's 
former  patent.     In  1607,  a  settlement  was   founded  by  this 
company  at  Jamestown,  on  the  banks  of  the  James  River,  in 
Virginia.     This  was  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in 
America.     (For  full  account  see  §§  80-82.) 

70.  Extent  of   English   Claims.  —  The  discoveries  of  the 
Cabots  and  the   subsequent  explorations    of   English    sailors 
gave  England  a  claim  to  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America 
from  Labrador  to   Florida.      The  western   boundary  of   this 
territory  was   not  defined.     The   English   claim  extended  in- 
definitely, and  was  limited  only  by  the  extent  of  the  continent. 
Queen  Elizabeth  made  no  attempt  to  establish  her  title  to  the 
Pacific  coast  based  on  the  explorations  of  Sir  Francis  Drake. 
The  period  of  English  exploration  begins  with  Hawkins  and 
Drake,  in  the  last  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.     English  ex- 
plorations and  settlements  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  present 
limits  of  the  United  States  went  hand  in  hand,  and  continued 
to  near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


46 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


EXPLORATIONS  OF  THE  DUTCH. 

71.  Holland  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries. 
—  It  was  more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the  discovery  of 
America  when  the  Dutch  began  their  explorations  in  the  New 
World.     In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  long 

and  bloody  struggle 
to  free  Holland  from 
Spanish  tyranny  came 
to  a  close,  and  the 
independence  of  the 
Netherlands  was  es- 
tablished. In  an  age 
of  bigotry  and  perse- 
cution, Holland  estab- 
lished religious  free- 
dom in  her  borders 
and  became  a  refuge 
for  the  oppressed  of 
other  lands.  Enter- 
ing upon  a  career  of 
prosperity,  she  now 
Dutch  Explorations.  became  one  of  the 

richest  nations  in  the  world.  The  genius  and  bravery  of  her 
naval  captains  gave  her  fleets  the  command  of  the  ocean. 
Half  the  commerce  of  Europe  was  carried  in  her  ships.  Her 
great  trading  companies  began  to  extend  their  operations 
around  the  globe. 

72.  The  Hudson  River. —  Sir  Henry  Hudson,1  an  English- 
man, after  making  two  voyages  in  a  vain  search  for  a  north- 
east passage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  left  the  service  of  his  coun- 
trymen and  entered  the  employ  of  a  Dutch  trading  company. 

1  The  same  Hudson  who  afterward  discovered  Hudson's  Bay,  and  perished  in  its 
waters  (§  64). 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  47 

In  the  Dutch  ship  "  Half  Moon,"  he  started  on  the  track  of  his 
former  voyages,  with  the  same  purpose  in  view.  Stopped  by 
the  ice  off  the  northern  coast  of  Norway,  he  turned  toward  the 
west,  hoping  to  find  the  looked-for  passage  in  that  direction. 
In  1609,  he  entered  New  York  Bay,  and  sailed  up  the  waters  of 
the  majestic  river  which  now  bears  his  name.  Arriving  at  the 
present  site  of  Albany,  and  seeing  no  prospect  of  reaching  the 
western  ocean,  he  returned. 

73.  Subsequent  Explorations  and  Settlement. — Dutch  sail- 
ors   explored  the    coast   from    Delaware    Bay  to    Cape    Cod. 
Trading-posts   were    established,   and   a   profitable   fur   trade 
with   the    Indians  was   begun.     In    1623   thirty  Dutch    fami- 
lies, sent  over  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  established 
themselves  on  Manhattan  Island,  the  present  site  of  New  York 
City.    The  settlement  was  named  New  Amsterdam,  and  became 
the  capital  of  the  Dutch  colony.    About  the  same  time  a  settle- 
ment was  made  at  Fort  Orange  (Albany).    The  Dutch  continued 
to  establish  trading-posts  in  the  present  limits  of  New  York, 
Connecticut,  and  New  Jersey. 

74.  Extent  of   Dutch  Claims.  — The  Dutch  claimed  the 
valley  of  the  Hudson  River,  and  the  country  explored  by  them 
from  Delaware  Bay  to   Cape   Cod.     In  honor  of  the  mother 
country,  they  named  this  region  New  Netherland.     The  period 
of  Dutch  exploration  and  settlement,  beginning  with   Henry 
Hudson,  1609,  continued  for  about  fifty-five  years,  when  the 
territory  controlled   by  .this  people  was    surrendered   to    the 
English  (§  1 68). 

THE  SWEDES  IN  AMERICA. 

75.  Settlement.  —  Sweden,  the  home  of  the  ancient  North- 
men, had  but  a  small  share  in  the  colonization  of  the  country 
that  her  daring  sailors  had  visited  so  many  centuries  before. 


48 


HISTORY   OF   OUR    COUNTRY. 


The  Swedish  King,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  ablest  monarch  of 
his  time,  realized  the  commercial  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
a  Swedish  settlement  in  the  New  World,  and  resolved  to  estab- 
lish a  colony  in  America.  The  brave  king  was  killed  in  bat- 
tle, but  his  plan  of  a  Swedish 
settlement  was  carried  out.  In 
1638,  a  settlement  was  made  in 
the  present  State  of  Delaware, 
near  the  site  of  Wilmington, 
and  was  called  Christiana,  in 
honor  of  the  infant  queen, 
daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

76.  Extent  of  Swedish 
Claims.  —  The  Swedes  explored 
the  country  from  the  southern 
cape  of  Delaware  Bay  to  the 
falls  of  the  Delaware  River, 
where  Trenton  now  stands. 
This  region,  embracing  the  present  State  of  Delaware  and 
the  southern  half  of  New  Jersey,  was  claimed  by  them,  and 
was  called  New  Sweden.  The  period  of  Swedish  exploration 
and  settlement  was  brief,  covering  about  seventeen  years. 
The  territory  of  the  Swedes  then  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch  of  New  York  (§  167). 

77.  Summary.  —  A  German  printer  suggested  the  name  America,  in 
honor  of  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  had  visited  and  described  the  coast  of 
Brazil.  The  name  was  first  restricted  to  South  America,  North  America 
being  considered  part  of  India. 

Within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States,  five  European  nations 
explored  and  made  claim  to  territory.  Of  these  the  Spaniards  took  the 
lead.  Their  explorations,  beginning  with  the  voyage  of  Columbus,  ex- 
tended over  a  period  of  about  a  hundred  years,  and  were  devoted  to  the 
search  for  gold  rather  than  the  founding  of  colonies.  By  men  in  the 
service  of  Spain  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  discovered,  the  world  was  first 


Swedish   Explorations. 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS. 


49 


circumnavigated,  the  southern  and  western  portions  of  the  United  States 
were  explored  and  conquered,  and  the  first  permanent  settlement,  St:  Au- 
gustine (1565),  was  made. 

The  French  explored  a  portion  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  made  ineffec- 
tual attempts  to  plant  colonies  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida.  French 
missionaries  and  traders  explored  and  secured  control  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 


European  Claims,    1650. 

the  Great  Lake  region,  and  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Their  first  permanent 
settlements  were  made  at  Port  Royal,  N.  S.  (1605),  and  at  Quebec  (1608). 
For  over  two  hundred  years  their  explorations  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  United  States  continued. 

The  first  to  discover  the  mainland  of  America,  the  English  claimed 
the  continent  from  Labrador  to  Florida.  By  an  Englishman  the  second 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe  was  made,  and  the  coast  of  California  was 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


visited.  English  ships  explored  the  northern  shores  of  North  America 
in  the  effort  to  find  a  northwest  passage  to  India.  Two  unsuccessful  efforts 
were  made  to  form  an  English  settlement  on  Roanoke  Island,  N.  C.  The 
first  permanent  English  settlement  was  made  at  Jamestown  (1607).  Eng- 
land, beginning  her  active  explorations  many  years  later  than  Spain  or 


Chart  of  Discoveries  and   Explorations. 

France,  continued  them  through  her  colonists  nearly  two  centuries,  or  until 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  was  won. 

The  Dutch  explored  and  claimed  the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  and  the  coast 
from  Cape  Cod  to  Delaware  Bay.  Their  explorations  hi  this  region  con- 
tinued about  fifty  years,  until  the  English  conquered  it  from  them.  They 
established  their  first  settlement  on  Manhattan  Island,  the  present  site  of 
New  York  City  (1623). 

The  Swedes  made  a  settlement  at  Fort  Christiana,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Delaware  River  (1638).  They  claimed  the  present  State  of  Delaware  and 
the  southern  part  of  New  Jersey,  but  were  overcome  by  the  Dutch  of  New 
York  seventeen  years  after  their  first  settlement. 


EXPLORATIONS    AND    SETTLEMENTS.  5  I 

78.  Thought  Questions.  —  How  do  you  account  for  Spain's  outstripping 
other  nations  in  the  exploration  of  the  New  World  ?  Has  Spain  any  posses- 
sions in  America  to-day  ?  Mention  some  European  nations  that  took  no 
part  in  the  colonization  of  America.  What  motives  chiefly  influenced  the 
Spanish  explorers  ?  The  French  ?  The  English  ?  The  Dutch  ?  The 
Swedes  ?  Which  nation  was  especially  successful  in  its  dealings  with  the 
Indians  ?  Can  you  explain  why  ?  What  nation  was  first  to  prove  that  the 
New  World  was  not  part  of  India?  How  was  this  done?  What  can  you 
say  of  the  power  of  the  Pope  at  that  time  ?  What  discoveries  were  the 
result  of  an  effort  to  find  a  passage  to  India  ?  In  what  instance  did  reli- 
gious bigotry  lead  to  a  settlement  ?  What  discoveries  and  explorations 
were  made  by  Italians  ?  What  memorial  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  remains 
in  our  geographical  names?  What  were  the  causes  of  the  failure  of  the 
first  attempts  at  settlement  by  the  English  ?  Show  how  the  European 
claims  overlapped  each  other.  Copy  on  blackboard  the  chart  of  discoveries 
and  explorations. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (EXPLORATIONS  AND  SETTLEMENTS). 

AMERICUS    VESPUTIUS  :  40.  {  ^rations. 

^  Name  of  continent. 

f  Discoveries  of  Columbus. 
41.  Spam's  Advantages. 


42.  Ponce  de  Leon. 


of  the 
f  Purpose  of  voyage. 
\  Discovery  and  fate. 


43.  Balboa. 


f  Discovery. 


\  Claim. 
H 

1 


44.MageUan.l-- 

{Conquest  of  Florida. 
Discovery  of  Mississippi. 
Fate. 

(  Mexico. 

47.  Cortez.  Coronado,  etc.  \  „  .... 

[_  California. 

48.  De  Vaca :   Journey  through  Texas. 

f  Purpose  of  voyage. 

49.  Menendez.  -j  Settlement. 

[  Conflict  with  Huguenots. 

50.  Other  Settlements. 

51.  Territory  Claimed. 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

f  Coasts  frequented. 

52.  Fishermen.  |  ResuUs 

f  Coast  explored. 

53.  Verazzani.  |  Claim 

54.  Cartier :  River  discovered. 

f  Settlement  in  South  Carolina. 

55.  Huguenots.  |  Settlement  in  Florida. 

f  First  permanent  settlement. 

56.  De  Monts  and  Cartier.        uejc  founded 


f  Region  claimed  for  France. 

57.  Traders  and  Missionaries.  |  Heroism  rf  missionaries. 

f  Discovery  of  mouth  of  Mississippi. 

58.  La  Salle.  j  Attempt  to  plant  settlement. 

59.  Territory  Claimed. 

60.  Indifference  of  English :  Causes. 

61.  Hawkins:  Description  of  Florida  coast. 

f  Hatred  of  Spanish. 

62.  Sir  Francis  Drake,  j  Pacific  coast  visited. 

[  Circumnavigation  of  globe. 
f  Success  of  Portugal. 

63.  Water  Route  to  India.  <  Success  of  Spain. 

(_  Attempts  of  English. 

64.  Efforts  to  find  a  Northwest  Passage. 

f  Secures  charter. 
iert'  \  Attempts  at  settlement. 

C  Charter. 

66,  67.  Raleigh.  •<  Voyage  of  exploration. 
[_  Attempts  at  settlement. 

,    f  Route. 

68.  Gosnold.  «    . 

^  Attempt  at  settlement. 

69.  London  Company.  (  Grant  obtained. 

L  First  permanent  settlement. 

70.  Territory  Claimed. 

71.  Holland  in  i6th  and  zyth  Centuries. 

{Purpose  of  voyage. 
Riv 

73.  West  India  Company :   Settlement. 

74.  Territory  Claimed. 

SWEDISH  i75'  Gustavus  Adolphus :  Settlement  planned  by  him. 


DUTCH.  ^  72'  Hudson'  |  River  discovered. 


THE    COLONIAL    PERIOD. 


FOUNDING    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE 
ENGLISH    COLONIES. 

79.  The  True  Beginning  of  Our  History.  —  In  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America, 
we  find  the  true  beginning  of  our  country's  history.  All  that 
comes  before  this  has  been  preparatory — ^like  the  clearing  off 
of  stones,  trees,  and  undergrowth  from  a  piece  of  land  prepar- 
atory to  building  a  house.  Adventurous  sea  captains,  daring 
soldiers,  enterprising  traders,  and  gold  hunters  have  passed 
and  repassed  before  our  eyes  in  the  preceding  pages.  Now  the 
scene  changes,  and  the  curtain  rises  upon  the  log-cabin  home 
of  the  settler  with  its  background  of  growing  crops.  Hereto- 
fore Spaniards  and  Frenchmen  have  been  the  most  conspicu- 
ous figures  ;  now  Englishmen  are  to  play  the  leading  part.  We 
shall  see  how  the  courage,  endurance,  and  genius  for  self-gov- 
ernment of  these  Englishmen  overcame  every  obstacle  and 
wrested  from  other  nations  the  control  of  the  continent. 


THE   SOUTHERN   COLONIES. 

VIRGINIA. 

80.  The  Founders  of  Virginia.  —  Sixteen  years  after  the 
disappearance  of  Raleigh's  last  colony  on  Roanoke  Island,  a 
movement  was  begun  that  resulted  in  the  first  permanent  Eng- 
lish settlement  in  America.  Two  men  stand  out  prominently 
as  the  leading  spirits  in  this  enterprise,  —  the  one  already 
famous  as  a  sailor  and  explorer,  the  other  as  a  soldier  and  ad- 
venturer. Their  names  were  Bartholomew  Gosnold  and  John 
Smith. 


54  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Captain  Gosnold,  we  have  already  learned  (§  68),  made  the 
first  direct  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  and  sailed  along  the  New 
England  coast.  He  was  now  eager  to  plant  a  colony  in  the 
milder  climate  farther  South. 

Captain  John  Smith  was  both  writer  and  fighter,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  adventurers  in  an  adventurous  age.  While  yet  a 
boy  he  left  his  home,  and  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier  in  the 
wars  of  Holland.  Joining  the  forces  against  the  Turks,  he  was 
captured  and  made  a  slave.  He  killed  his  master  and  escaped 

to  Russia,  and  thence  when 
only  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
returned  by  way  of  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  and  Morocco 
to  England.  The  Virginia 
enterprise  drew  Smith  and 
Gosnold  together,  and  they 
became  warm  advocates  of 
the  scheme  for  establishing 

\l  f  ?mm   a  colony- 

81.  The  London  Compa- 
ny.— The  expensive  failures 
of  Raleigh  had  discouraged 

Captain  John   Smith. 

all    attempts    at    colonizing 

Virginia,  and  no  private  person  was  now  willing  to  furnish  the 
necessary  means  for  undertaking  another  settlement.  There 
were  in  England  at  this  time,  however,  several  great  trading 
companies  that  were  growing  rich  from  their  commerce  with 
distant  lands.  The  success  of  two  of  these  —  the  Muscovy 
Company  and  the  East  India  Company  —  induced  a  number 
of  merchants  and  prominent  men  to  embark  with  Gosnold  and 
Smith  in  a  similar  enterprise.  Accordingly  two  new  companies 
were  organized  with  authority  from  the  king  to  establish 
colonies  in  America  and  control  the  commerce  of  the  new 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


55 


settlements.  These  companies  were  known  as  the  London  and 
the  Plymouth  Companies,  from  the  residence  of  their  principal 
stock-holders,  and  they  were  granted  in  equal  parts  the  vast 
region  between  the  parallels  of  34°  and  45°,  or  what  is  now  the 
southern  boundary  of  North  Carolina  and  the  middle  of  Nova 
Scotia.  The  southern  half  of  this  grant  was  given  to  the 
London  Company,  and  was  called  South  Virginia ;  the  northern 
half  to  the  Plymouth  Company,  and  called  North  Virginia. 

82.  The  First  Settlement.  —  Colonists  were  sent  out  by 
both  Plymouth  and  London  Companies  the  same  year  (1606). 
The  Plymouth  Company  attempted  a  settlement  on  the  coast 
of  Maine,  but  the  place  was  abandoned 
by  the  colonists  after  the  first  winter. 
The  London  Company  was 
more  successful.  In  the  last 
days  of  the  year,  a  little  fleet 
of  three  vessels,  under  the 
command  of  Captain  Christo- 
pher Newport,  set  sail  down 
the  Thames  for  South  Virginia. 
Captain  Gosnold  commanded 
one  of  the  vessels,  and  John 
Smith  was  among  the  passengers.  After  a  stormy  voyage  they 
entered  Chesapeake  Bay,  givirfg  the  names  of  the  two  eldest 
sons  of  the  king  to  the  capes  that  guard  its  mouth.  Sailing  up 
the  river  known  to  the  Indians  as  the  Powhatan,  but  called  by 
the  colonists  the  James  River  in  honor  of  their  sovereign,  they 
chose  a  flat  peninsula  on  its  northern  "bank  as  the  place  for 
their  settlement.  Jamestown  was  the  name  these  loyal  English- 
men applied  to  their  group  of  huts.  The  year  1607  marks 
the  date  of  this,  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in 
America  —  just  one  hundred  and  ten  years  after  Cabot's 
great  discovery. 


Virgi 


56  HISTORY   OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 

83.  The  First  Colonists.  —  There  were  one  hundred  and 
five  persons  in  the  little  company  that  laid  the  foundations  of 
Jamestown.     More  than  half  of  the  whole  number  were  "  gen- 
tlemen "  unused  to  manual  labor,  —  and  so  were  poorly  fitted 
for  the  rough  life  of  the  wilderness.     The  colonists  were  either 
unmarried  men  or  else  they  had  left  their  wives  and  children 
behind.     Consequently  they  did  not  look  upon  their  cabins  as 
homes  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.     Most  of  them  expected 
to  find  gold  and  pearls,   and  in   a  short  time   to  return  to 
England   loaded  with    riches.1      Some  were   influenced  by   a 
desire  to  convert  the  Indians ;  others  were  fond  of  adventure, 
and  wished  to  extend  the  English  dominions  in  America.     All 
slept  under  the  trees  in  the  pleasant  May  weather  until  their 
log  cabins  were  built. 

84.  The  First  Charter.  —  The  form  of  government  of  the 
colonists  was  as  poorly  adapted  to  their  surroundings  as  were 
the  settlers  themselves.     Queen  Elizabeth  was  dead,  and  the 
reign  of  James  I.  had  begun.     King  James  was  called  by  a  wit 
of  the  time,  "  The  most  learned  fool  in  Christendom,"  and  the 
complicated  form  of  government  he  devised  for  the  first  Virgin- 
ians seems  to  justify  the  epithet.     Besides  the  London  Com- 
pany there  were  to  be  two  governing  bodies  called  "  Councils," 
one  residing  in  England,  appointed  by  the  king,  the  other,  a 
subordinate    Council   in  Virginia,   appointed   by  the   English 
Council.     The  Company  was  empowered  to  coin  money  and 
collect  taxes.     Perhaps  the  worst  provision  was  that  which 
required  all  the  products  of  the  colonists  to  be  brought  to  a 

l  In  a  popular  English  play  of  that  period,  one  of  the  characters,  speaking  of  Vir- 
ginia, is  made  to  say:  "  I  tell  thee  golde  is  more  plentiful!  there  than  copper  is  with 
us ;  and  for  as  much  redde  copper  as  I  can  bring  I'll  have  thrice  the  weight  in  golde. 
Why,  man,  all  their  dripping  pans  are  pure  golde,  and  all  the  chains  with  which  they 
chain  up  their  streets  are  massive  golde ;  all  the  prisoners  they  take  are  fettered  in 
golde ;  and  for  rubies  and  diamonds  they  goes  forth  in  holy  dayes  and  gather  'em  by 
the  seashore  to  hang  on  their  children's  coates  and  stick  in  their  children's  caps." 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


57 


public  store-house,  and  there  apportioned  by  an  officer  as  they 
were  needed.  Thus,  as  no  man  could  enjoy  the  products  of 
his  own  labor,  there  was  no  reward  for  industry,  and  laziness 
was  encouraged. 

85.  Troubles.  —  More  than  once  it  seemed  that  the  failures 
at  Roanoke  Island  were  to  be  repeated  at  Jamestown.  The 
place  was  low  and  un- 
healthful.  Malaria  arising 
from  the  marshy  banks  of 
the  river  caused  slow 
fevers  which  swept  away 
more  than  half  of  the 
colonists  before  the  first 
summer  was  ended.  In 
the  beginning  of  1608  two 
more  ship-loads  of  immi- 
grants were  sent  over  by 
the  London  Company. 
The  mad  search  of  the 
newcomers  for  gold  caused 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
to  be  neglected,  while  the 
wretched  plan  of  a  "  com- 
mon store-house  "  encour- 
aged idleness.  In  the 
winter  of  1609-1610,  pro-  Ruins  of  Jamestown 

visions  were  entirely  ex- 
hausted, and  the  starving  colonists  began  to  live  on  roots  and 
acorns,  and  skins  of  horses.  One  man,  driven  to  insanity, 
killed  his  wife  for  food.  The  horrid  deed  was  discovered  and 
he  was  burnt  to  death  as  a  punishment.  Still  the  suffering 
continued.  The  miserable  survivors  in  despair  resolved  to 
abandon  Virginia  and  return  to  England.  They  buried  their 


58  HISTORY    OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 

cannon,  and  embarking  in  two  ships  floated  down  the  river  and 
out  of  sight  of  the  huts  of  Jamestown.  Fortunately  before 
proceeding  far  they  met  Lord  Delaware  with  a  fleet  and  boun- 
tiful supplies.  All  returned  to  the  deserted  settlement,  and 
the  colony  was  saved.  The  next  year  more  colonists  arrived, 
and  the  settlement  of  Henrico  (now  Richmond)  was  founded. 

86.  The  Great  Deliverer. —  In  the  perils  of  the  colony  dur- 
ing the  first  two  years  of  its  existence,  there  was  one  man  whose 
clear  head  and  strong  arm  repeatedly  saved  the  settlement  from 
destruction.  Captain  John  Smith,  under  the  absurd  charge  of 
an  attempt  to  make  himself  "  King  of  Virginia,"  had  been  at 
first  deposed  from  his  position  as  a  member  of  the  Council  by 
his  jealous  associates.  He  demanded  a  trial  by  jury,  and  was 
triumphantly  acquitted,  his  leading  prosecutor  being  compelled 
to  pay  him  two  hundred  pounds  damages.  Disgusted  with  the 
incapacity  of  their  rulers,  the  colonists  finally  made  Smith  pres- 
ident of  the  Council,  and  entrusted  the  management  of  their 
affairs  to  him.  "  No  persuasion,"  writes  an  old  chronicler, 
"  could  persuade  him  to  starve."  Assembling  all  the  settlers, 
he  addressed  the  idlers  thus  :  "  I  protest,  by  that  God  that 
made  me,  you  shall  not  only  gather  for  yourselves,  but  for  those 
that  are  sick;  and  he  that  will. not  work  shall  not  eat."  The 
stern  soldier's  orders  were  obeyed,  and  at  once  there  was  a 
change  for  the  better.  To  supply  their  immediate  wants  Smith 
led  an  expedition  to  the  most  important  village  of  the  Indian 
chief  Powhatan,  and  by  force  obtained  a  supply  of  corn  from  the 
Indians.  The  savages  regarded  the  bold  captain  with  fear  and 
admiration,  and  as  long  as  he  remained  in  Virginia  gave  but 
little  trouble.1  But  for  Captain  John  Smith  the  Jamestown 

i  In  his  "  General!  Historic  of  Virginia"  Captain  Smith  relates  that  on  one  of  his 
exploring  expeditions  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians  and  sentenced  to  death, 
but  that  his  life  was  spared  through  the  entreaties  of  Powhatan's  little  daughter, 
Pocahontas.  This  same  Indian  maiden  was  afterward  married  to  John  Rolfe,  one  of 
the  settlers.  Rolfe  and  his  bride  visited  England,  where  "  Lady  Rebecca,"  as  Poca- 
hontas was  called,  was  received  with  honor  at  the  court,  and  her  beauty  much  admired. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


59 


colony  would  in  all  probability  have  perished,  and  the  history 
of  English  settlement  in  America  would  have  been  changed. 

87.  The  Indians.— Powhatan  was  the  great  chief  of  the  Vir- 
ginia tribes  east  of  the  mountains.    The  influence  of  John  Smith, 
and  the  marriage  of  the  old  chief's  daughter,  Pocahontas,  to 
Rolfe,  made  Powhatan  the  firm  friend  of  the  whites,  and  during 
his  lifetime  the  savages  were  at  peace  with  the  settlers.    Under 
Powhatan's  successor,  Opechancanough,  two  plots  were  formed 
to  destroy  the  colonists  by  attacking  all  their  settlements  at  the 
same  time.     The  first  plot  was  carried  out  in  1622,  when  over 
three  hundred  defenseless  whites  were  murdered.     The  settlers 
hastily  assembled,  attacked  the  savages  furiously,  hunted  them 
as  if  they  were  wild  beasts,  and  drove  them  far  to  the  frontier. 
The   second   massacre    came   twenty  years   later.      Governor 
Berkeley  raised  a  troop  of  horsemen,  routed  the   Indians  and 

captured  Opechancanough.      The  old 

chief  was  nearly  blind  from  age,  and 

so  infirm  that  he  had  to  be  carried  on 
a  litter.  Yet  his  mind  was  vigorous 
and  his  spirit  unbroken.  The  governor 
expected  to  send  the  captive  chief  to 
England,  but  he  was  murdered  by  one 
of  his  guards.  After  this  Virginia  had 
little  to  fear  from  Indian  attacks. 

88.  Tobacco  Culture.  —  We   have 
seen  how  the  Indian  custom  of  smok- 
ing tobacco  excited  the  wonder  of  the 
first  English  explorers  of  America  (§  61, 
footnote).      Sir  Walter   Raleigh   made 
the  practice  fashionable  at  the   Eng- 
lish court,  and  it  soon  became  general 

throughout  England.     The   soil  and  climate  of  Great  Britain 
were  not  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  plant,  so  the  fashionable 


6O  HISTORY    OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 

English  smokers  had  to  depend  upon  the  uncertain  crops 
of  the  Indians  for  a  supply  for  their  pipes.  (Cigars  were 
not  known,  and  tobacco-chewing  was  rare.)  Soon  after  the 
Jamestown  colony  was  firmly  established,  John  Rolfe  began  the 
systematic  culture  of  tobacco.  He  succeeded  so  well,  and 
found  such  a  ready  sale  for  his  crop,  that  Governor  Yeardley 
directed  the  general  attention  of  the  colonists  to  the  production 
of  the  plant.  Tobacco  culture  soon  became  the  chief  occupa- 
tion of  the  Virginians.  Every  year  thousands  of  hogsheads  of 
the  valuable  product  were  exported  to  England.  All  other  oc- 
cupations were  neglected,  and  the  tobacco  industry  became  an 
important  element  in  the  material,  political,  and  social  history 
of  Virginia. 

89.  The  First  Assembly  and  Constitution.— In  the  first  five 
years  of  her  existence  Virginia  had  three  different  charters. 
The  third  charter  abolished  the  London  Council,  and  allowed  the 
Company  to  govern  their  colony  directly.  A  resolution  was 
passed  by  the  Company  granting  to  the  Virginians  the  right  to 
choose  for  themselves  a  "  General  Assembly  "  to  make  their 
laws.  Every  freeman  was  allowed  to  vote,  and  two  "  burgesses  " 
were  elected  from  each  "plantation,"  or  settlement.  The  laws 
of  the  Assembly  were  to  be  approved  by  the  London  Company 
before  they  could  be  binding.  The  first  Assembly  consisted 
of  twenty-two  members.  It  met  at  Jamestown,  1619,  and  was 
the  first  law-making  Assembly  chosen  by  the  people  that  ever 
met  in  America. 

Two  years  later  (1621)  the  colonists  were  granted  a  written 
constitution,  defining  their  rights  and  providing  for  regular 
meetings  of  the  Assembly.1 

i  This  first  American  constitution  was  the  work  of  Sir  Edwin  Sandys,  one  of  the 
ablest  friends  of  Virginia.  He  had  been  chosen  treasurer  of  the  company  against 
the  wishes  of  King  James,  who  is  said  to  have  remarked,  "  Choose  the  devil  if  you 
will,  but  not  Sir  Edwin  Sandys." 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  6 1 

90.  Wives   for  the    Settlers The   wise    heads  in    the 

London   Company   realized    that    their    colony   would   never 
succeed  as  long  as  the  settlers  looked  wistfully  back  to  Eng- 
land as  their  home.     So  the  plan  was  devised  of  sending  out 
from  England  numbers  of   young   women   as   wives   for   the 
Virginians,  to  make  homes  for  them  in  the  wilderness,  and 
thus  awaken  in  the  men  an  interest  in  the  prosperity  and  good 
government  of  the  colony.     The  young  women  were  to  be  of 
good   character,   and  the   cost  of   the  passage  of   each  (one 
hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  tobacco)  was  to  be  paid  by  the 
man  who  chose  her  as  his  wife.     The  damsels,  too,  were  not 
to  be  "  enforced  to  marry  against  their  wills."     This  curious 
plan  succeeded  finely.     When   the   first   ship-load   of   ninety 
maidens  arrived  at  Jamestown,  a  crowd  of  young  men  and  old 
bachelors  who  were  fortunate   enough  to   have  the  required 
amount   of   tobacco,    assembled   to   greet    them.     Courtships 
were  made  in   short  order.     As  soon  as  a  man  made  satis- 
factory arrangements  with  a  partner,  he  paid  for  her  passage, 
and  they  were  married  at  once.     There  was  no  trouble  in  find- 
ing  husbands   for  all,    and   the    ninety   brides  were  so  well 
pleased  that  they  wrote  back  home  and  persuaded  sixty  more 
maidens  to  come  over,  and  make  sixty  more  lonely  bachelors 
happy. 

91.  The   First   Slaves.  —  The  same  year  that  marks  the 
meeting  of  the  first  Assembly  and  the  beginning  of  free  gov- 
ernment in  Virginia,  was  also  the  beginning  of  African  slavery 
in  this  country.     In  1619  a  Dutch  vessel  sailed  up  the  James 
River   and   offered   for   sale   to  the  planters  twenty  negroes 
captured  on  the  coast  of  Africa.     The  slaves  were  bought  and 
put   to  work  on  the  tobacco  plantations.     Their   labor   was 
found  profitable,  and  when  others  were  brought  over  a  ready 
sale  was  found  for  them.     In  a  few  years  slaves  were  found  in 
greater  or  less  numbers  in  all  the  American  colonies. 


62  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

92.  Fall  of  the  London  Company.  —  King  James  did  not 
like  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  opposition  to  royal  power  that 
was  displayed  in  the  great  meetings  of  the  London  Company. 
He  sent  a  committee  to  Virginia  to  inquire  into  the  affairs  of 
the  colony.     The  Assembly  refused  to.  submit  their  records ; 
and  when  the  king's    commissioners  bribed  the  clerk  to  sur- 
render them,  the  Assembly  punished  their  faithless  servant  by 
cutting  off  his  ear.     But,  as  everybody  expected,  the  obstinate 
king  carried    his  point.     The  charter  was  annulled,  and  the 
London  Company,  that  had  controlled  the  colony  for  seven- 
teen years  and  had  laid  the  foundation  of  free  government, 
was  dissolved.     Virginia  became  a  royal  colony  and  passed 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  king  (1624). 

93.  The   "Old  Dominion."  —  About  the   middle    of    the 
seventeenth  century  Oliver  Cromwell  led  a  revolution  in  Eng- 
land   against    the    authority   of    the    king.      The    armies  of 
Charles  I.  (the  successor  of  James  I.)  were  beaten,  and  the 
king   was   tried    and  beheaded  by  his  subjects.     For  eleven 
years    England  was   under   the   rule  of  a  "Lord   Protector" 
instead   of    a  king,     while     the     late     king's  son,    afterward 
Charles  II.,  was  a  wandering  exile.     During  this  period  many 
of   the    king's   followers  fled  to  Virginia,  among   them   John 
Washington,  the  great-grandfather  of  George  Washington,  and 
also   the   ancestors   of   Jefferson,    Patrick    Henry,    the   Lees, 
Randolphs,  and  other  families  afterward  prominent  in  history. 
The  sympathies  of  the  Virginians  were  with  the  royalists,  and 
these  exiles  were  warmly  welcomed.     In  one  of  her  charters, 
Virginia    was    called    "His    Majesty's    Ancient    Colony    and 
Dominion  of  Virginia."     For  this  reason,  and  because  of  her 
loyalty  to  the  exiled  monarch,  Virginia  received  the  name  of 
the  "Old  Dominion." 

94.  Bacon's   Rebellion.  —  Though  loyal  to  the  King,  the 
colonists  grew  more  and  more  discontented  with  the  oppressive 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  63 

laws  of  England  and  the  misrule  of  the  governors.  During  an 
Indian  attack,  Governor  Berkeley  ordered  the  troops  that  were 
ready  to  march  against  the  savages  to  disband,  —  probably  be- 
cause an  Indian  war  would  interfere  with  his  profits  from  their 
trade.  The  people  chose  Nathaniel  Bacon,  a  young  and  popular 
planter,  as  their  leader,  and  without  waiting  for  authority  from 
the  governor,  they  marched  against  the  Indians  and  defeated 
them.  In  the  meantime  Berkeley  declared  Bacon  and  his 
men  rebels.  Bacon's  party  then  met  and  signed  an  oath  to 
resist  the  governor  and  any  forces  that  might  be  sent  over 
from  England,  until  the  king  should  be  informed  of  the  true 
state  of  affairs.  Civil  war  followed  between  the  adherents  of 
Bacon  and  those  of  the  governor.  Bacon's  party  was  suc- 
cessful, and  the  governor  was  driven  out  of  Jamestown.  A 
new  Assembly  met  and  passed  a  number  of  laws  for  the  relief 
of  the  people.  In  the  midst  of  his  success,  however,  Bacon 
died  of  fever  caused  by  exposure.  No  leader  was  found  to 
take  his  place,  and  his  party  fell  to  pieces.  Berkeley  returned 
to  Jamestown  and,  seizing  the  government,  began  to  take 
vengeance  upon  those  who  had  opposed  him.  King  Charles 
II.  finally  removed  him  from  office,1  remarking,  "  The  old  fool 
has  taken  away  more  lives  in  that  miserable  country  than  I 
have  for  the  murder  of  my  father." 

95.  Settlement  of  the  Valley.  —  The  region  between  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  the  Alleghany,  known  as  the  "Valley  of 
Virginia,"  was  settled  by  a  class  of  people  different  from  the 
colonists  on  the  banks  of  the  James.  The  first  wave  of  im- 
migration into  this  section  came  from  Pennsylvania,  and  was 
composed  of  Germans  and  Scotch-Irish,  who  were  attracted  by 
reports  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Later,  numbers  of  Scotch- 
Irish  Presbyterians,  seeking  greater  religious  freedom,  came 

1  For  thirty-five  years  Berkeley  had  been  a  leading  figure  in  Virginia  history, 
having  held  the  office  of  governor  during  the  greater  part  of  this  time. 


64  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

from  eastern  Virginia  to  the  upper  valley,  and  many  families 
were  brought  direct  from  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  large 
tobacco  plantations,  so  numerous  east  of  the  mountains,  were 
not  found  in  the  valley  ;  so  in  their  manner  of  life,  as  in  their 
religion,  the  Virginians  of  this  section  differed  from  their 
Church-of-England  neighbors  across  the  mountains. 

96.  Later  History  of  the  Colony.  —  By  the  close  of  the 
colonial  period  the  struggling  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the 
James  had  grown  to  a  prosperous  colony  of  over  half  a  million 
inhabitants.     On  account  of  the  unhealthfulness  of   its    site, 
Jamestown   was    abandoned,    and   Williamsburg   became    the 
capital.     This  town  was  founded  on  the  spot  where  Bacon  and 
his  men  had  taken  the  oath  to  resist  the  king's  troops.     Its 
streets  were  planned  in  the  form  of  a  W  and  M,  in  honor  of 
William  and    Mary.     Here    William    and    Mary   College,    the 
principal  seat  of  learning  in  the  Southern  colonies,  was  located. 
Under  Governor  Spottswood,  the  pirates  of  Chesapeake  Bay 
were  routed,  and  their  famous  leader,  "Blackboard,"  was  killed. 
Spottswood  established  the  first  iron  furnace  in  Virginia,  and 
did  much  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  colony. 

97.  Summary.  —  Virginia,  the  oldest  English  colony,  was  founded  at 
Jamestown  in    1607,  by   the  London  Company,  a  mercantile   body  that 
wished  to  extend  its  trading  operations  by  forming  settlements  in  America. 
The  charter  obtained  from  King  James  I.  provided  a  wretched  form  of 
government.     Sickness,  starvation,  and  quarrels  brought  the  settlement  to 
the  verge  of  ruin.     John  Smith  saved  the  colony  from  destruction.     Young 
women  were  brought  over  from  England  as  wives  for  the  settlers.     The 
importation  of  needy  adventurers  ceased,  and  a  stream  of  immigration 
from  the  best  classes  of  England  flowed  into  the  colony.      The  use  of 
tobacco  was  learned  from  the  Indians,  and  the  culture  of  the  plant  became 
so  profitable  that  it  formed  the  universal  occupation  of  the  settlers.     In 
the  year  1619,  the  first  colonial  assembly  met.     In  the  same  year  the  first 
African  slaves  were  introduced.      Seventeen  years  after  the  founding  of 
Jamestown  King  James  dissolved  the  London  Company  and  made  Virginia 
a  royal  colony.     The  misrule  of  Governor  Berkeley  led  to  the  civil  strife 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  65 

known  as  "  Bacon's  Rebellion,"  which  was  brought  to  a  close  by  Bacon's 
death.  Throughout  the  colonial  period  Virginia  held  a  leading  position 
among  the  English  colonies. 


MARYLAND. 

98.  Settlement.  —  Twenty-seven  years  after  the  settlement 
of  Jamestown,  two  English  ships  sailed  into  Chesapeake  Bay 
bearing  men  and  supplies  for  the  founding  of  a  new  colony 
north  of  the  Potomac. 

They  sailed  up  the 
broad  bosom  of  the 
Potomac,  entered  a 
small  tributary  near  its 
mouth,  and  landing, 
established  their  first 
settlement,  which  they 
called  St.  Mary's 
(1634).  Land  was 
purchased  from  the  In- 
dians, together  with 

part  of  the  growing  crops.  The  Indian  women  taught  the 
settlers  how  to  make  "hoe-cakes"  of  corn  meal,  and  the  In- 
dian men  helped  them  to  hunt  the  deer.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  settlers  were  laboring  men.  More  fortunate  than  its 
Virginia  neighbors,  the  new  colony  escaped  the  perils  of  starva- 
tion and  Indian  massacres,  and  was  soon  firmly  established. 

99.  The  Founders  of   Maryland. — These  colonists  were 
sent  out  from  England  by  Cecil  Calvert.     George  Calvert,  the 
first    Lord    Baltimore,   was    a   rich    English    nobleman  and    a 
member  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.     The  Catholics  were 
at  that  time  persecuted  in  England,  and  George  Calvert  wished 
to  found  a  refuge  in  America  for  his  brethren.     He  first  tried 
Newfoundland,  but  found  the  climate  there  too  severe.     He 


66  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

then  went  to  Virginia  with  a  number  of  followers.  On  his  re- 
fusal to  take  the  "  Oath  of  Supremacy "  (acknowledging  the 
king  of  England  as  the  head  of  the  Church)  the  Virginians 
requested  him  to  leave  their  colony.  Returning  to  England, 
he  obtained  from  his  friend,  King  Charles  I.,  a  grant  to  that 
part  of  Virginia  lying  north  of  the  Potomac.  The  new 

colony  was  to  be  called 
Maryland,  in  honor  of  Hen- 
rietta Maria,  wife  of  the 
king.  Just  before  his  char- 
ter was  issued  Lord  Balti- 
more died.  His  son,  Cecil 
Calvert,  the  second  Lord 
Baltimore,  carried  out  his 
father's  plans. 

100.  The  Government  of 
the  Colony.  —  The  charter 
of  Maryland  contained  a 
more  complete  grant  of 
power  than  that  of  any 

George  Calvert,    First   Lord   Baltimore.  ' 

other  colony.  The  proprie- 
tor, as  Lord  Baltimore  and  his  successors  were  called,  was 
authorized  to  make  all  necessary  laws,  with  the  consent  of  the 
freemen  ;  and  these  laws  were  to  be  binding  without  the  ap- 
proval of  the  English  king  or  Council.  The  colonists  were  to 
be  free  from  taxation  by  the  crown,  and  were  to  enjoy  all  the 
rights  of  Englishmen.  The  king  only  asked,  as  a  token  of 
allegiance,  two  Indian  arrows  every  year. 

101.  Territorial  Disputes. —  There  was  much  dissatisfac- 
tion among  the  Virginians  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
Maryland  grant  embraced  territory  included  in  their  charter. 
William  Clayborne,  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Council,  had 
established  a  trading  post  on  an  island  in  Chesapeake  Bay 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  67 

within  the  disputed  limits.  When  the  Maryland  authorities 
demanded  that  he  should  pay  for  a  license  to  trade,  he  raised 
a  body  of  troops  and  resisted.  He  was  defeated,  however, 
and  his  property  seized.  Clayborne  fled  to  Virginia,  and  after- 
ward went  to  England  to  make  his  complaint  to  the  king.  The 
king,  however,  decided  against  him. 

After  Pennsylvania  was  founded,  a  dispute  arose  between 
that  colony  and  Maryland  as  to  the  boundary  between  them. 
The  present  line  was  finally  agreed  upon,  and  was  called 
"  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,"  from  the  two  surveyors  by  whom 
it  was  laid  off. 

102.  Religious  Troubles.  —  Though  Maryland  was  founded 
as  a  refuge  for  oppressed  Catholics,  yet  Christians  of  every  de- 
nomination were  welcomed.     Her  government  was  the  first  in 
the  history  of  the  world  under  which  all  Christians  possessed 
equal  rights.1     During  Cromwell's  rule  in  England,  the  govern- 
ment of  Maryland  passed  into  the  hands  of  Protestants.     Sad 
to  say,  they  began  to  persecute  the  Catholics,  and  civil  war  fol- 
lowed.    The  Protestants  under  Clayborne,  who  was  now  at  the 
head  of  the  Puritan  party,  were  successful,  and  the  Governor 
of  Maryland  was  compelled  to  flee  from  the  colony.     After  the 
death  of  Cromwell,  Lord  Baltimore's  authority  was  again  estab- 
lished and  religious  toleration  was  restored. 

103.  Changes  in  the  Government.  —  In  1692,  King  William 
annulled  Lord  Baltimore's  charter,  and  for  twenty-five  years 
Maryland  remained  a  royal  colony  under  the  control  of  govern- 
ors appointed  by  the  king.       The  capital  was  moved  from  St. 
Mary's  to  Providence,  afterward  called  Annapolis  in  honor  of 
the  queen.      The  fifth  Lord  Baltimore,   having   changed   his 
religion,  was  recognized  as  Proprietor,  and  under  his  son  the 

i  In  1638  William  Lewis  was  fined  one  hundred  pounds  of  tobacco  for  abusing 
Protestants,  and  forbidding  his  servants  to  read  Protestant  books. 


68  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

old  government  was  reestablished,  and  remained  in  force  until 
the  Revolution. 

104.  Summary.  —  George  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Roman  Catholic 
nobleman,  in  order  to  found  a  refuge  for  his  oppressed  brethren,  obtained 
from  the  King  a  grant  to  that  part  of  the  territory  of  Virginia  lying  north  of 
the  Potomac.  The  first  settlement,  St.  Mary's,  was  founded  in  1634.  The 
charter  was  extremely  liberal.  All  Christians  were  allowed  equal  rights. 
William  Clayborne  of  Virginia,  with  a  band  of  followers,  resisted  the 
authority  of  Maryland  over  a  certain  island  in  the  Potomac.  War  followed 
between  Clayborne's  followers  and  the  troops  of  the  Governor.  Clayborne 
was  defeated  and  driven  from  the  colony.  Afterward  he  returned,  put  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  Protestant  party,  and  compelled  the  Governor  to 
flee.  The  Protestant  rulers  then  treated  the  Catholics  with  great  severity. 
Finally  Calvert's  authority  was  reestablished.  King  William  annulled  the 
charter  and  for  twenty-five  years  Maryland  was  a  royal  colony.  Then  the 
fifth  Lord  Baltimore  was  recognized  as  proprietor  and  the  old  proprietary 
government  was  restored. 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 

105.  Settlement.  —  The  first  attempts  to  plant  an  English 
settlement  in  the  New  World  were  on  the  coast  of  the  present 
State  of  North  Carolina  (§  67).    After  the  failure  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh's  last  colony,  however,  this  region  was  for  a  long  time 
abandoned.     In    1629   Charles  I.  gave  to   Sir  Robert  Heath 
the  vast  territory  between  the  present  states  of  Virginia  and 
Florida;  but  Heath  made  no  attempt  at  settlement,  and  nothing 
came  of  the  grant.    Virginia  claimed  part  of  this  region  (§  81), 
and  her  Assembly  asserted  authority  over  it  by  issuing  grants 
of  land  to  settlers  and  trading  companies.     A   settlement   of 
Virginians  was  formed   on    the  shores    of   Albemarle    Sound 
(l6S3)-     Ten  years   later  some    Englishmen  from  the    West 
India  Islands  settled  on  the  Cape  Fear  River. 

106.  Colony  Established.  —  In  1663,  Charles  II.,  ignoring 
the  claims  of  Virginia,  gave  to  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  the  Duke 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


69 


of  Albemarle,  and  six  other  noblemen  (including  Governor 
Berkeley,  of  Virginia),  as  a  reward  for  their  faithfulness  to  him, 
the  region  formerly  em- 


SETTLEMENT 

OF  THE 
:.Auffu8tine      CAROLINAS 


braced  in  Heath's  patent. 
These  proprietors  estab- 
lished their  authority  over 
the  settlements  already 
formed,  and  proceeded  to 
introduce  other  colonists. 
In  Heath's  patent,  the 
name  Carolina,  given  by 
the  French  to  their  fort 
on  the  coast  (§55),  was 
applied  to  the  entire  territory,  in  honor  of  Charles  I.  of  Eng- 
land. This  name  was  retained  by  the  new  proprietors. 

107.  The  Charter.  —  The  charter  of  Carolina,  as  of  Mary- 
land, allowed  great  freedom  of  action  to  the  proprietors.    They 
could  make  any  laws  whatever,  provided  they  were  in  accord- 
ance with  the  laws  and  customs  of  England.     A  most  important 
provision,  however,  was  that  no  laws  could  be  passed  without 
"  the  advice,  assent,  and  approbation  of  the  freemen  "  or  their 
delegates,  who  were  to  be  assembled  from  time  to  time. 

1 08.  The  Fundamental  Constitutions.  —  The  noblemen  who 
owned  Carolina  did  not  believe  in  giving  much  power  to  the 
common  people.    With  the  aid  of  the  philosopher,  John  Locke, 
an  elaborate  plan  of  government,  called  the   "  Fundamental 
Constitutions,"  was  prepared  for  the  colony.     By  these  Consti- 
tutions the  eldest  proprietor  was  made  a  sort  of  king  of  the 
province.     The  other  proprietors  were  to  be  officers  with  high- 
sounding  titles.     There  was  to  be  a  parliament  elected  by  the 
people,  but  it  could  discuss  only  such  measures  as  were  pro- 
posed by  the  Grand  Executive  Council  appointed  by  the  pro- 


70  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

prietors.  The  inhabitants  of  the  colony  were  to  be  divided 
into  classes  called  barons,  landgraves,  caciques,  and  commons, 
and  the  commons  were  allowed  no  share  in  the  government. 

109.  Effect  of  Misgovernment.  —  From  the  first,  the  colo- 
nists regarded  the  Fundamental   Constitutions   as   unsuitable 
and  oppressive.     They  claimed  that  according  to  the  charter 
their  consent  was  necessary  to   any  change   of  government. 
Yet  for  twenty-five  years  the  proprietors  vainly  attempted  to 
enforce  their  absurd   plan  upon  the  settlers.     Moreover,  the 
governors  appointed  by  the  proprietors  were  nearly  all  tyranni- 
cal and  worthless  men.     The  result  of  so  much  misrule  was  to 
give  the  people  a  contempt  for  all  government,  and  to  retard 
the  growth  of  the  colony. 

1 10.  A  Royal  Colony.  —  For  about  seventy  years   North 
Carolina   and    South    Carolina  were    considered    one    colony, 
although  each  had  a  separate  governor  and  assembly.     The 
proprietors,  after  a  long   struggle   with  their  obstinate    colo- 
nists, finally  abandoned  the   Fundamental   Constitutions  and 
allowed  the  settlers  to  govern    themselves   according  to  the 
charter  of  Charles  II.     In  1729,  the  proprietors  sold  all  their 
rights  to  the  King,  and  North  and  South  Carolina  became  royal 
provinces. 

Summary.    See  §  116. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

in.  Settlement.  —  In  the  southern  part  of  the  immense 
region  known  as  Carolina,  two  rivers,  the  Ashley  and  the 
Cooper,  flowing  through  a  fertile  and  lovely  district,  unite 
their  waters  just  before  reaching  the  sea.  On  the  western 
bank  of  the  first  named  of  these  streams,  two  ship-loads  of  im- 
migrants, sent  out  from  England  by  the  Lords  Proprietors  of 
Carolina,  landed  and  began  to  build  their  future  homes  (1670). 


THE    ENGLISH*   COLONIES.  /I 

The  new  settlement  was  named  Charleston,  in  honor  of  the 
English  king.  A  few  years  later  it  was  removed  to  the  strip 
of  land  between  the  Ashley  and  the  Cooper  rivers,  the  present 
site  of  the  city  of  Charleston. 

112.  The  Settlers.  —  The  first  settlers  of  Charleston  were 
a  mixed  population,  including  English,  Irish,  Scotch,  French, 
and  Germans.  On  account  of  religious  persecution  at  home, 


large  numbers  of  French  Protestants,  known  as  Huguenots, 
came  to  the  colony.  These  were  intelligent,  orderly,  indus- 
trious, and  religious,  —  an  excellent  class  of  immigrants. 

113.  Rice-Culture. —  A  sea  captain  returning  from  a  voyage 
to  Madagascar  gave  some  rice  seed  to  one  of  the  colonists. 
The  seed  were  planted,  and  the  climate  and  soil  proved  to  be 
admirably  adapted  to  rice  production.     A  machine  for  husking 
the  seed  having  been  invented,  rice  culture  soon  became  a 
leading  occupation  of  the  people. 

114.  Troubles  with  the  Spaniards  and  the  Indians.— The 

Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine  regarded  the  settlers  of  South 
Carolina  as  intruders  upon  their  territory.  In  1686  a  com- 
bined force  of  Spaniards  and  Indians  attacked  and  destroyed 
an  English  settlement  at  Port  Royal.  Some  years  later,  the 
South  Carolinians  made  an  expedition  against  St.  Augustine, 


72 

in  which  they  burned  the  town  but  failed  to  take  the  fort. 
Troubles  with  the  Spaniards  and  their  Indian  allies  continued 
until  the  new  colony  of  Georgia  was  formed  between  South 
Carolina  and  the  hostile  Spaniards. 

115.  Government  of  the  Colony.  —  At  first  South  Carolina 
was  governed  as  part  of  Carolina.     The  "  Fundamental  Con- 
stitutions "  met  the  same  resistance  from  the  southern  colo- 
nists that  it  did  from  their  northern  neighbors.     In  1711,  the 
people  of  South  Carolina  rose  against  the  rule  of  the  proprie- 
tors, and  invited  their  governor  to  hold  his  office  in  behalf  of 
the  king.     On  his  refusal,  they  chose  one  of  their  own  number 
governor,  and  proceeded  to  control  the  government  as  a  royal 
colony.    The  king  approved  their  action.    In  1729,  North  and 
South  Carolina  were  finally  separated,  and  both  were  declared 
royal  provinces. 

116.  Summary,  the  Carolinas.  —  In  1663,  King  Charles  II.  granted  to 
the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  the  Duke  of  Albemarle,  and  other  noblemen  the 
vast  region  lying  between  Virginia  and  Spanish  Florida  (including  a  part  of 
what  was  then  the  territory  of  Virginia).     A  short  time  before  this  grant 
was  made  a  few  colonists  from  Virginia  and  some  Englishmen  from  the 
West  Indies  had  made  settlements  on  Albemarle  Sound  and  Cape  Fear 
River.     In  1670,  Charleston  was  founded  by  settlers  sent  by  the  proprietors 
direct  from  England.     The  northern  and  southern  parts  of  Carolina  were 
allowed  each  a  separate  governor  and  Assembly.    There  was  much  misgov- 
ernment,  especially  in  the  northern  colony.     The  introduction  of  rice-cul- 
ture added  prosperity  to  South  Carolina.     The  Spaniards  and  Indians  of 
Florida  were  a  source  of  danger  to  the  southern  colony  until  Georgia  was 
founded.     About  seventy  years  after  the  first  settlement,  North  Carolina 
and  South  Carolina  were  separated  and  both  became  royal  colonies. 

GEORGIA. 

117.  The  Territory  of  Georgia  was  originally  part  of  the 
Carolina  grant.     When  South  Carolina  became  a  royal  prov- 
ince, the  Savannah  River  was  made  its  southern  boundary,  the 
country  between  that  stream  and   Spanish  Florida  being  re- 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


73 


tained  by  the  king  as  "crown  lands."  George  II.  granted  the 
region  lying  between  the  Savannah  and  Altamaha  Rivers  to 
their  sources,  thence  due  west  to  the  Pacific,  to  James  Ogle- 
thorpe  and  a  company  of  "trustees,"  who  named  their  pro- 
posed colony  Georgia  in  honor  of  the  king. 

118.   The  Founders  of  Georgia.  —  At  that  time  the  English 
jails  were  full  of   people  who  were  imprisoned  because  they 


LT% 


could  not  pay  their  debts.  James  Oglethorpe  was  a  brave  soldier 
and  member  of  parliament  who  was  touched  with  pity  for  the 
sufferings  of  the  debtors.  He  induced  others  to  join  him  in 
raising  a  fund  for  transporting  the  better  class  of  these  debtors 
to  America,  where  they  would  be  able  to  make  homes  for  them- 
selves and  to  begin  life  anew.  So  much  interested  was  he  in 
his  unselfish  enterprise,  that  he  came  to  America  himself, 
cheerfully  gave  his  money,  and  bravely  endured  every  danger 
in  the  interest  of  the  colony. 

119.   First   Settlement.  —  Oglethorpe   obtained   his   grant 
from  the    king  in  1732  (the  same  year  that  Washington  was 


74 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


born).  He  came  over  with  his  colonists,  and  the  next  year 
founded  the  city  of  Savannah  on  a  bluff  overlooking  the 
Savannah  River. 

120.  Growth  and  Government  of  the  Colony.  —  Besides 
the  English  debtors  large  numbers  of  persecuted  German  Prot- 
estants came  to  Georgia.  All  laws  were  made  by  the  trustees, 

and  the  colonists 
were  allowed  no 
share  in  the  gov- 
ernment. .Religi- 
ous toleration  was 
granted  to  all  save 
Roman  Catholics. 
Slavery  was  prohib- 
ited and  the  impor- 
tation of  rum  for- 
bidden. However, 
the  government  of 
the  trustees  was 
unpopular,  and  in 
1752,  Georgia 
became  a  royal 


James  Oglethorpe. 


colony.  Oglethorpe  was  very  successful  in  his  dealings  with 
the  Indians.  Tomochichi,  a  neighboring  chief,  like  Powhatan 
in  Virginia,  and  Massasoit  in  Massachusetts,  was  the  firm 
friend  of  the  whites. 

121.  Preaching  of  the  Wesleys  and  Whitefield.  —  The 
brothers  John  and  Charles  Wesley  accompanied  Oglethorpe  to 
Georgia,  the  former  as  missionary  of  the  English  Church.  For 
three  years  John  Wesley  faithfully  ministered  to  the  settlers 
and  Indians,  undergoing  every  hardship  in  his  laborious  mis- 
sion. Returning  to  England,  he  and  his  brother  Charles  be- 
came the  founders  of  the  Methodist  Church.  George  WThitefield 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


75 


joined  them,  and  succeeded  John  Wesley  as  missionary  to 
Georgia.  Whitefield  was  a  pulpit  orator  of  wonderful  power. 
His  clear,  musical  voice  could  be  heard  distinctly  by  an  audi- 
ence of  twenty-five  thousand  people.  He  traveled  through 
the  colonies  from  Georgia  to  Massachusetts,  preaching  in  the 
open  air  to  vast  crowds  and  exerting  a  powerful  influence 
wherever  he  went. 

122.    Troubles  with  the  Spaniards. —  The    Spaniards  of 
Florida  constantly  threatened  the  destruction  of  the  Georgia 


settlements.  There  were  invasions  and  counter-invasions  until 
the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  (1763)  when  Spain 
gave  up  to  England  all  Spanish  territory  south  of  the  Altamaha 
River.  The  limits  of  the  colony  of  Georgia  were  then  extended 
to  include  the  present  states  of  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Missis- 
sippi. 

123.  Summary.  —  Georgia,  the  youngest  of  the  original  thirteen  colo- 
nies, was  founded  by  James  Oglethorpe  as  a  refuge  for  the  unfortunate 
debtor  class  of  England.  The  territory  of  the  colony  lay  between  the 


76 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Savannah  and  Altamaha  Rivers.  In  1733  the  first  settlement  was  made  at 
Savannah.  The  Wesleys  and  George  Whitefield  visited  the  colony  and  ex- 
erted a  great  influence  by  their  preaching.  Twenty  years  after  the  founding 
of  Georgia,  Oglethorpe's  "  trustees  "  surrendered  their  rights  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  colony  passed  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  king. 
There  were  occasional  conflicts  with  the  Spaniards  on  the  south,  until 
Florida  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  England.  The  territory  of  Georgia  was  then 
extended  west  and  south  to  the  Mississippi. 

124.  Thought  Questions.  —  Account  for  the  gradual  loss  of  promi- 
nence of  the  Spanish  in  American  history.  Why  were  the  Swedes  and 
Dutch  so  slow  in  attempting  settlements  ?  What  points  of  superiority  over 
all  their  competitors  did  the  English  possess  in  the  struggle  for  possession 
of  the  continent  ?  In  what  sense  was-  Raleigh  the  founder  of  Virginia  ? 
What  motive  actuated  the  London  Company  in  their  colonization  enter- 
prise? What  rights  were  granted  to  the  Virginians  by  this  company? 
What  ideas  resembling  that  of  a  "  common  store-house  "  are  held  in  modern 
times?  Show  that  they  are  as  foolish  to-day  as  they  ever  were.  What  do 
you  think  of  John  Smith's  rule  that  "he  who  will  not  work,  shall  not  eat"? 
In  what  ways  did  the  profitableness  of  tobacco  culture  influence  Virginia 
history?  Was  Bacon  a  rebel?  What  do  you  think  of  the  justice  of  his 
course  ?  Why  were  the  "  Scotch-Irish  "  so  called  ?  How  did  the  Virginians 
regard  the  first  settlers  of  Maryland  ?  What  motives  led  to  the  founding  of 
Maryland?  How  did  it  happen  that  two  colonies  were  formed  in  Carolina? 
Compare  the  condition  of  debtors  to-day  with  their  condition  1 50  years  ago. 
What  resemblance  is  there  between  the  circumstances  of  Oglethorpe's 
founding  of  Georgia  and  Baltimore's  founding  of  Maryland  ?  What  dif- 
ference do  you  notice  ? 

Fill  out  the  following  table  for  Southern  colonies : 


COLONY. 

First 
Settlement. 

Date. 

By  Whom 
Founded. 

Religion  of  First 
Settlers. 

Motive  of 
Founders. 

Virginia    .     . 

Jamestown 

1607 

London  Co. 

Church  of  England 

Commercial  gain 

Maryland.     . 

N.  Carolina  . 

S.  Carolina    . 

Georgia     .     . 

THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  77 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES). 


A  New  Epoch,  j 


A  glance  backward. 

79.  A  JNew  Epoch.  <j    .     ,         , 

1  A  glance  forward. 

f  Past  history. 

80.  Gosnold  and  Smith.  •{  ^T 

[_  New  plan. 


Trading  Companies. 


J  Plymouth  Company. 


London  Company. 

f  By  Plymouth  Company  (failure). 

82.  Settlements.  |  ^  J^  Company  Q^ 

f  Condition. 

83.  Jamestown  Colonist..  |  Expectations. 

84.  First  Charter.  (  *U™er0fUS  "Councils'" 

[  Public  store-house. 

f  Sickness. 

85.  Settlement  Abandoned.  -I  Starvation. 

[_  Lord  Delaware's  arrival. 

86.  Services  of  John  Smith. 

f  Pocahontas  and  Powhatan. 

87.  The  Indians.  |  Opechancanough,s  plots. 

88.  Tobacco  Culture. 

(  Three  charters. 

89.  Government.  \  First  Assembly. 

[  First  Constitution. 

,     f  Homesickness  of  settlers. 

90.  Permanency  Assured.  |  peculiar  p,an  of  ^  Company 

91.  The  First  Slaves. 

f  His  opposition  to  the  London  Company. 

92.  The  King  s   I  Action  of  Vi    inia  Assembly. 
Interference.  |  A  royal  colony 

f  Civil  war  in  England. 
93-  Royalist  Emigration.  |  Ex^  wekomed  to  yirginia 


f  Origin, 
fcj 


94.  Bacon's  Uprising.  4  Strife. 

[  Result. 

95.  Settlement  of  the  Valley. 

f  Growth. 

96.  Later  History.  •<  Williamsburg. 

[  Gov.  Spottswood. 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


98.  First  Settlement. 

99.  Founders  of  the  Colony 


NORTH 
CAROLINA 


George  Calvert's  object. 
Attempts  at  colonization. 
Cecil  Calvert. 

{  £uth,°rity  °ff  th*  ProPrietors' 
L  Privileges  of  colonists. 

With  Virginians. 

With  Pennsylvania. 
f  Rule  of  Catholics. 

02.  Religious  Troubles.  -|  Rule  of  Protestants. 
[_  Civil  war. 

Made  royal  colony. 

_        . 

Proprietary  government  restored. 

{Raleigh's  attempts. 
Albemarle  Sound. 
Cape  Fear  River. 
C  The  proprietors. 

1  06.  Carolina.  -4  The  grant  of  territory. 
[  The  name. 

f  Authority  of  the  proprietors. 


100.  The  Charter. 


Territorial  Disputes. 


103.  Changes  in  Government. 


SOUTH 
CAROLINA. 


GEORGIA. 


1 10.  Later  History. 

'•{ 


in.  Settlement. 


107.  The  Charter.  -,  r>. 

[  Rights  of  the  colonists. 

1 08.  Fundamental  Constitutions,  -i  _, 

\  Provisions. 

f  The  Constitutions. 

109.  Misgovernment.  <  Conduct  of  Governors. 

[  Result. 
Carolina  divided. 
A  royal  colony. 
Location. 
Name. 

By  whom  sent. 
Mixed  population. 

1 1 3.  Rice  Culture. 

114.  Contests  with  the  Spanish  in  Florida. 

J  Uprising  of  the  colonists. 
\  A  royal  colony. 

Limits  of  the  grant. 
Name. 
f  The  man. 
118.  The  Founder.  -I  His  object. 

His  self-sacrifice. 


112.  Settlers. 


115.  Government. 
117.  The  Territory. 


GEORGIA 

(continued}. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  79 

f   1 19.  The  First  Settlement. 

f  The  Indians. 
1 20.  Growth  of  the      „  ,  ,     _ 

Government  ot  the  I  rustees. 


Colony. 


A  royal  colony. 


121.  Preaching  of  the  Wesleys  and  Whitfield. 

122.  Troubles  with  the  J  Invasions  from  Florida. 

Spaniards.  ^  Fla.  surrendered  to  England. 


THE  NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Within  the  present  limits  of  Massachusetts  there  were  once 
two  colonies,  known  as  the  Plymouth  Colony  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  Colony. 

/.   PLYMOUTH  COLONY. 

125.  Religious  Classes  in  England.  —  At  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  people  of  England  were  divided 
according  to  religious  belief  into  two  great  classes  :  the  Roman 
Catholics,  who  in  times  past  had  controlled  the  government,  but 
now  were  comparatively  few  in  number  and  were  oppressed  by 
unjust  laws  ;  and  the  Protestants  (so  called  originally  because 
they  protested  against  some  of  the  beliefs  and  practices  of  the 
Catholics),  who  were  now  the  ruling  class.  But  the  Protestants 
were  themselves  divided.  The  great  majority  of  them,  includ- 
ing most  of  the  rich  and  the  nobility,  were  members  of  the 
Church  of  England,  whose  ministers  were  appointed  and  sup- 
ported by  the  government.  Among  the  Protestants,  however, 
there  were  many  who  objected  to  certain  forms  and  observ- 
ances of  the  English  Church.  Those  who  carried  their 
opposition  so  far  as  to  establish  separate  churches  were 
called  Separatists,  while  those  who  preferred  to  remain  in 
the  English  Church  but  wished  to  see  it  changed  in  some 
forms  and  doctrines  ("purified"  as  they  said)  were  known 
as  Puritans. 


8o 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Draw  on  blackboard :  — 


CATHOLICS 
(few  and 
oppressed). 


English 
People 


PROTES-      . 
TANTS 


'Church  of 

England  (great 
majority  of 
people). 

Puritans 

Dissenters 

(or 
Conformists). 

(or 
Puritans) 

Separatists 
(or 
Non-Con- 

Presbyterians, 
Independents, 

1  Quakers, 
etc. 

126.  The  Founders  of  the  Plymouth  Colony.  —  In  the  next 
year  after  Jamestown   was  founded,  a  little  congregation  of 
Separatists,  unwilling  to  give  up  their  religious  belief  and  un- 
able longer  to  endure  the  persecutions  to  which  they  were  sub- 
jected,  fled   from    England  and  sought  a  home   in   Holland 
(§  71).      Here   they   remained   for    a    number    of    years    un- 
disturbed.     But  they  were  still  Englishmen,  and  it  grieved 
them  to  see  their  children,  by  intermarriage  with  the  Dutch, 
gradually  forget  their  language  and  religion,  and  become  ab- 
sorbed in  a  foreign  nation.    Their  thoughts  turned  to  America. 
In  the  wilds  of  the  New  World  they  hoped  to  find  a  refuge, 
where,  free  from  alien  influences,  they  could  worship  God  as 
they  chose. 

127.  Difficulties  in  the  Way.  — These  exiled  Englishmen 
decided  on  the  northern  part  of  the  vast  region  then  called 
Virginia  as  the  best  place  for  their  new  home.     But  two  great 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  8 1 

difficulties  were  in  the  way  of  the  undertaking ;  the  permission 
of  the  English  authorities  to  make  a  settlement  in  their  Ameri- 
can possessions  had  to  be  secured,  and  means  had  to  be  pro- 
vided to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  enterprise.  The  London 
Company  was  favorable,  but  the  king  hesitated  to  promise 
them  freedom  of  religion.  At  last  they  secured  a  "  patent "  1 
from  the  Company  with  only  the  indirect  assurance  from  the 
king  "  that  he  would  connive  at  them  and  not  molest  them, 
provided  they  carried  themselves  peaceably."  London  mer- 
chants agreed  to  furnish  the  means,  on  condition  that  for  seven 
years  the  proceeds  of  all  labor  should  go  to  a  common  fund, 
and  at  the  close  of  that  period  there  should  be  an  equal  divi- 
sion of  houses,  lands,  and  goods  between  the  merchants  and 
colonists. 

128.  The  Voyage  to  America.  —  Under  William  Brewster, 
an  elder  of  their  church,  a  large  part  of  this  Separatist  congre- 
gation set  sail  from  Holland  in  a  small  ship  called  the  Speed- 
well.    They  sailed  first  to. England,  where  they  found  a  larger 
vessel,  the  Mayflower,  hired  for  their  use.     Here  a  number  of 
friends  joined  them.     The  two  ships  started  out  on  their  west- 
ern voyage  together,  but  the  Speedwell  was  soon  found  to  be 
too  leaky  to  proceed,  and   returned   to  England.     The  May- 
flower continued  on  her  course  alone,  and  after  a  voyage  of 
nine  weeks,  in  November,  1620,  came  in  sight  of  the  shores  of 
Cape  Cod. 

129.  Settlement  of  Plymouth.  —  The  "  Pilgrims,"  as  these 
wanderers  were  called,  intended  to  settle  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson,   the    northern    limit  of   the  Virginia    Company,   but 

1  Plymouth,  unlike  her  neighboring  colonies,  never  had  a  charter  from  the  King. 
Her  attempts  to  secure  one  were  defeated  by  religious  opposition  in  England,  and 
jealousy  of  adjoining  colonies  in  America.  The  company  called  "the  Governor  and 
Council  of  Plymouth  "  had  a  charter  giving  them  the  powers  of  government.  This 
company  granted  a  "  patent "  to  the  colonists  and  their  friends  which  allowed  them 
only  the  rights  to  settle  and  trade. 


82 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


stormy  weather  and  the  opposition  of  the  ship's  crew  forced 
them  to  make  a  landing  on  the  coast  which  they  first  reached. 

Several  weeks  were  spent  in 
exploring  the  shores  of  Cape 
Cod  Bay  in  search  of  a  suitable 
place  for  settlement.  Finally 
a  small  harbor,  known  on  Cap- 
tain John  Smith's  map  as  Ply- 
mouth, was  chosen.  Here 
they  found  "  divers  cornfields 
and  little  running  brooks,  a 
place  very  good  for  settle- 


ment." It  was  December  21, 
1620,  when  the  landing  was 
made  and  the  settlement  begun. 


130.  Government. —  Finding  themselves  outside  the  limits 
of  the  Virginia  Company,  whose  grant  they  held,  the  colonists, 
before  landing,  drew  up  and  signed  the  following  paper  as  a 
basis  of  their  government : 

"  Jn  tbe  name  of  <Sob,  amen :  Wt,  tobofe  namctf  arc  unbcr-tt)ritten,  tbc 
loinall  fubfect?  of  our  breab  foteraigne  %orb,  fttng  fames  .  .  .  bailing 
undertaken  for  pc  glorie  of  *JBob  anb  abtanccmcnte  of  pc  Cbriftian  faitb,  and 
bonour  of  our  toing  anb  countrie,  a  toopage  to  plant  pe  firfl  colome  in  pc 
Bottbernc  parts  of  $iroinm,  boe  folcmnl?  anb  mutual?  in  pc  prcfcncc 
of  «5ob  anb  one  of  anotbcr,  covenant  ...  to  cnaete,  conrtitutc,  anb  frame 
futb  furt  anb  cquall  lakes'  ...  as  fball  be  tbougbt  moft  mcete  anb 
convenient  for  joe  generall  goob  of  pe  Colonie,  unto  wbicb  tae  promife 
an  bue  fubmiffion  anb  obebicnte." 

John  Carver  was  chosen  governor  for  the  first  year. 

131.  Early  Years.  —  There  were  one  hundred  and  two  per- 
sons in  the  company  that  disembarked  from  the  Mayflower. 
This  number  included  eighteen   men  accompanied   by  their 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  83 

wives,  sixteen  single  men,  twenty  boys,  eight  girls,  three  maid- 
servants, and  nineteen  men-servants  or  hired  workmen.  They 
built  log  houses,  using  oiled  paper  for  window-glass.  The 
winter  which  soon  set  in  was  bitter  cold,  and  half  of  the  colo- 
nists died  before  it  was  over.  Yet  when  the  Mayflower  sailed 
back  to  England  in  the  spring,  not  one  of  the  survivors  re- 
turned. During  the  first  four  years  the  colonists  often  suffered 
from  hunger,  their  chief  dependence  for  food  during  this  period 
being  corn  purchased  from  the  Indians,  together  with  clams 
and  fish. 

132.  Development  of  Plymouth  Colony.  — The  next  year 
after  the  settlement  additional  colonists  arrived,  and  by  1630 
the  number  had  increased  to  three  hundred.     The  first  ship- 
load of  immigrants  brought  a  patent  from  the  "  President  and 
Council  of  New  England,"  —  a  new  corporation  that  had  taken 
the  place  of  the  old  Plymouth  Company.     The  plan  of  putting 
all  earnings  in  a  common  stock  proved  as  unsatisfactory  here 
as  it  was  in  Virginia,  and  was  soon  abandoned.     The  London 
partners   in  the  "patent,"  failing  to  receive  the  large  profits 
they  expected,  sold  out  their  shares  to  the  colonists.    Although 
they  were  still  subject  to  the  new  Plymouth  Company,  they 
became,  by  this  change,  more  independent  of '  England  than 
before,  and  were  able  to  dictate  what  sort  of  immigrants  should 
be  admitted.     Governor  Carver  having  died  the  first  winter, 
William  Bradford  was  chosen  governor.     With  the  exception  of 
five  years  when  he  declined  to  serve,  Bradford  was  reflected 
every  year  until  his  death,  thirty-six  years  later. 

133.  Captain  Standish  and  the  Indians.  —  Learning  of  an 
Indian  plot  against  the  neighboring  settlement  of  Weymouth, 
Captain  Miles  Standish  with  eight  men  was  sent  to  investigate 
the  matter.     Standish  was  "  a  man  of  very  little  stature,  yet  of 
a  very  hot  and  angry  temper."    Finding  himself  one  day  in  the 


84  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

same  cabin  with  the  hostile  chief  and  several  of  his  braves,  he 
gave  a  signal  to  his  men  to  close  the  door.     Then  snatching  a 

knife  from  one  of  the 
Indians,  a  desperate 
conflict  followed,  in 
which  the  chief  con- 
spirator and  two  other 
Indians  in  the  room 
were  killed,  and  one 
was  taken  prisoner. 
This  bold  act  of  Cap- 
tain Standish  alarmed 
the  savages  and  their 

The  Miles  Standish  House,  Duxbury,  Mass. 

plot  was  broken  up. 

Afterward  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made  with  Massasoit,  chief  of 
the  nearest  Indian  tribe,  which  lasted  fifty-four  years. 

134.  Union  with  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  —  After  a 
separate  existence  of  seventy  years,  the  Plymouth  Colony,  in 
1691,  was  united  to  the  neighboring  more  populous  and  wealthy 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay.     In  the  new  charter  the  name 
Massachusetts  was  applied  to  the  colonies  thus  united. 

II.  MASSACHUSETTS  BAY  COLONY. 

135.  Settlement.  —  In    1628,  six  prominent   English  Puri- 
tans obtained  from  the  Council  for  New  England  a  grant  of 
land  extending  from  three  miles   north   of  the  Merrimac  to 
three  miles  south  of  the  Charles.     This  "  patent "  embraced  a 
strip  of  land  about  sixty  miles  wide,  extending  westward  to 
the  Pacific   Ocean,  which  was  then  thought  to  be  not  much 
farther  distant  than  the  Hudson  River.     John  Endicott,  one 
of   the    six   "patentees,"   with   about  one   hundred    colonists, 
made  a  settlement  the  same  year  at  Salem,  on  the  Massachu- 
setts coast, 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


136.  The  Charter.  —  The  next  year  the  proprietors  of  this 
grant  obtained  a  charter  from  King  Charles.  The  object  of 
the  leaders  was  to  establish  in  America  a  refuge  from  the 
oppression  to  which 


the  Puritans  were 
subjected  in  Eng- 
land. Yet  it  was 
thought  best  to  say 
nothing  about  reli- 
gion in  the  charter, 
and  the  enterprise 
was  apparently  for 
trading  purposes. 
The  stockholders 
were  allowed  to  elect 
annually  a  governor, 
d  e  p  u  t  y-g  o  v  e  r  n  o  r, 
and  eighteen  assistants.  Endicott  acted  as  first  governor. 
Soon  the  entire  company  moved  to  Massachusetts,  bringing 
their  charter  with  them.  This  was  a  bold  and  popular  move, 
as  it  gave  the  people  in  the  colony  as  members  of  the  company 
a  right  to  govern  themselves. 

137.  Growth  of  the  Colony.  —  New  immigrants  came  in 
rapidly,  and  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  soon  surpassed 
its  neighbor  Plymouth  both  in  wealth  and  population.  Besides 
Salem,  six  other  towns  were  established,  of  which  Boston, 
founded  in  1630  by  Governor  Winthrop,  was  the  most  impor- 
tant and  became  the  seat  of  government.  The  colonists  were 
originally  Puritans,  not  Separatists,  and  as  such  adhered  to  the 
Church  of  England.  But  their  independent  position  in  civil 
matters  and  the  influence  of  the  Plymouth  settlers  led  them  to 
establish  a  separate  church  government. 


86 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


138.  Religious  Disturbances.  —  The  settlers  of  Massachu- 
setts had  braved  the  hardships  and  dangers  of  the  New  World 
in  order  to  enjoy  undisturbed  their  own  religion.  They  made 
church  membership  a  qualification  for  voting,  and  refused  to 
allow  members  of  any  other  faith  than  their  own  to  gain  a  foot- 
hold in  the  colony.  Roger  Williams,  a  talented  young  Separatist 
minister,  gave  them  a  good  deal  of  trouble  by  his  peculiar  beliefs 
and  the  eloquence  with  which  he  advocated  them.  He  opposed 

enforced  attendance  on 
church,  and  claimed  that 
the  government  should  not 
interfere  with  matters  of 
religious  belief.  He  was 
ordered  to  return  to  Eng- 
land, but  fleeing  south- 

••;:•'• -\     F      \     1  ^!>    I! V          ward  he  took  refuge  among 

the  Indians  and  founded 
the  colony  of  Rhode  Is- 
land. 

Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson 
delivered  public  lectures 
in  the  colony,  in  which 

she  urged,  among  other  doctrines,  that  not  an  upright  life, 
but  a  direct  inward  revelation  proved  a  person  to  be  saved, 
and  that  any  one  "justified"  and  "sanctified"  was  absolutely 
free  from  sin.  Her  teachings  caused  great  excitement  and 
gained  many  adherents.  They  were  looked  upon  by  the  stern 
Puritans-  as  dangerous  to  public  morals,  and  she  was  banished 
from  the  colony.1 

139.  The  First  Slave  Ship.  —  The  first  American  slave  ship 
was  built  at  Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  in  1636.  It  was  used 


The  Church  in  which  Roger  Williams  Preached 
Salem.     It  is  still  standing. 


1  Mrs.  Hutchinson  was  kindly  received   in    Rhode  Island  by  Roger  Williams 
Afterwards,  having  removed  to  New  York,  she  was  killed  in  an  Indian  massacre. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  8/ 

for  transporting  to  this  country  slaves  captured  on  the  coast 
of  Africa.  Two  years  later  this  ship  brought  her  first  cargo  of 
negro  slaves  into  Massachusetts.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
an  extensive  and  profitable  trade  by  which  slaves  were  carried 
in  New  England  ships  to  all  the  English  colonies. 

140.  Indian   Troubles.  —  Massachusetts,   in   common  with 
her  sister  colonies,  was  engaged  in  two  bloody  Indian  wars,  the 
Pequod  War  and   King  Philip's  War.     These   are   described 
later  (§§  156—160). 

141.  The  Witchcraft  Craze.  —  The   stern  religious  life  of 
the   Puritans  and  the  intensity  of  their  convictions  led  to  a 
ready  acceptance  of  the  supernatural.     In  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century  belief  in  witchcraft,  which  had  long 
been  accepted  in  the  Old  World,  reached  a  climax  of  fanati- 
cism in  New  England,  and  hurried  the  people  into  deeds  of 
cruelty  and  bloodshed.     In   1684,  Rev.  Increase  Mather  pub- 
lished a  book  called  "A  Record  of  Illustrious  Providences," 
containing  an  account  of  the  cases  of  witchcraft  that  had  al- 
ready occurred  and  describing  the  characteristics  of  the  "  devil- 
try "  of  the  witches.     A  few  years  later  the  children  of  John 
Goodwin   of   Boston   claimed   to   have   been  bewitched  by  an 
Irish  servant-woman,  against  whom  one  of  them  had  a  spite. 
Among  other  symptoms,  they  barked  like  dogs,  mewed  like 
cats,  and  were  struck  dumb  at  the  sight  of  the  Shorter  Cate- 
chism.    The  so-called  witch  was  tried,  convicted,  and  hanged. 
At  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1692,  a  witchcraft  craze  seized  the 
people.     Twenty  persons  were  executed  as  witches,  hundreds 
were  imprisoned,  and  a  reign  of  terror  prevailed.    Rev.  Increase 
Mather,   then   President  of   Harvard   College,  was   a  leading 
spirit  in  the  prosecutions.     He  was  heartily  supported  by  the 
governor  and  highest  judges  of  the  colony.     At  last  the  people 
returned  to  their  senses,  and,   after   a  few  years  had  passed, 


88  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Massachusetts  appointed  a  fast-day  for  the  "  errors  into  which 
magistrates  and  people  had  been  led  by  Satan  and  his  instru- 
ments." 

142.  Period  of  Oppression.  —  In  1678,  the  lawyers  of  King 
James   II.   declared   that  the   charter  of   Massachusetts  had 
been  forfeited  by  the  failure  of  her  government  to  enforce  the 
navigation  laws  of  England.     Petitions  and  remonstrances  of 
the  colonists  were  of  no  avail.     A  few  years  later  (1684)  the 
charter  was  declared  to  be  null  and  void.     The  colony  was  left 
absolutely  subject  to  the  king,  and  the  people  were  deprived 
of  all  their  political  rights.     Sir  Edmund  Andros  was  appointed 
governor  of  New  England.     This  tyrant  levied  taxes  on  his 
own   authority,  and  declared  that  all   lands  belonged  to  the 
crown ;  the  colonists  could  establish  their  title  only  by  paying 
fees  to  the  royal  officials.    This  despotic  government  continued 
until  the  news  of  the  overthrow  of  King  James  reached  Massa- 
chusetts.    The  people  then  rose  against  their  rulers,  put  Andros 
in  jail,  and  reestablished  their  old  government. 

143.  Plymouth  Joined  to  Massachusetts  Bay.  —  As  before 
related,  the  colonies  of  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay  were 
united  in  one  colony  in  1691.     The  province  of  Maine  and 
the  territory  of  Nova  Scotia  were  included  in  the  new  colony, 
thenceforth  known  as  Massachusetts.     The  new  charter  of  1692 
provided  that  the  governor  should  be  appointed  by  the  king, 
and  all  acts  of  the  legislature  were  to  be  sent  to  England  for 
approval.     The  religious  qualification  for  voters  was  no  longer 
continued,  but  a  property  qualification  was  required. 

144.  Summary.  —  A  congregation  of  English    Separatists,  to   escape 
persecution  in  their  native  land,  fled  to  Holland.     Dissatisfied  there,  they 
resolved  to  settle  in  America.     They  obtained  a  patent  from  the  London 
Company,  and  sailing  by  way  of  Plymouth,  England,  landed  in  1620  on  the 
Massachusetts  coast.     They  named  their  settlement  Plymouth.     Finding 
themselves  outside  the  territory  of  the  London  Company,  they  obtained  a 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


89 


patent  from  the  Council  for  New  England  (successors  to  the  Plymouth 
Company).  .  John  Carver  was  chosen  as  their  first  governor,  and  Miles 
Standish  was  their  leader  against  the  Indians. 

Eight  years  later  John  Endicott  and  other  prominent  English  Puritans 
obtained  from  the  Council  for  New  England  a  grant  of  territory  lying 
north  of  Plymouth.  Settlements  were  made  at  Salem,  Boston,  and  other 
places.  Endicott  obtained  from  the  king  a  charter  designating  his  colony 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  and  giving  to  himself  and  his  associates 
the  powers  of  government.  The  "  stockholders  "  having  all  moved  to  Mas- 
sachusetts, the  colony  became  a  self-governing  commonwealth.  Roger 
Williams  and  Mrs.  Hutchinson  were  banished  on  account  of  their  religious 
teachings.  Two  Indian  wars  caused  great  loss  of  life  and  property.  Dur- 
ing the  "witchcraft  craze"  many  innocent  persons  were  imprisoned  and 
put  to  death.  In  1678  the  king  annulled  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
Colony,  and  for  five  years  the  people  were  under  the  despotic  rule  of  Gov- 
ernor Andros. 

In  1691  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay  were  united  in  one  colony, 
known  as  Massachusetts.  The  population  and  wealth  of  Massachusetts 
gave  her  a  preeminence  among  the  Northern  colonies  corresponding  to  that 
of  Virginia  in  the  South. 


CONNECTICUT. 

145.    Settlement. — The   Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  and 
the  Plymouth  colonists  both  established  trading  posts  on  the 

Connecticut    River    , , , „,.,.,..  , 

at  an  early  date ; 
but  the  real  found- 
ers of  the  Connecti- 
cut colony  came 
from  Massachu- 
setts. In  1635  Jonn 
W  i  n  t  h  r  o  p,  the 
younger,  built  Fort 
Saybrook  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River.  The  next  year  Hartford  was 
founded  by  Thomas  Hooker,  a  Puritan  minister,  who  had 
marched  through  the  woods  from  Massachusetts  with  his  entire 


9o 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


congregation.  John  Davenport,  another  minister,  with  a  com- 
pany of  immigrants,  settled  New  Haven. 

146.  Union  of  the   Settlements. — Around  the  towns  of 
Hartford  and  New  Haven  as  centers,  numerous   settlements 
sprang  up.     For  a  while  there  were  three  colonies,  Saybrook, 
Connecticut,  and  New  Haven.     In  a  few  years  these  were  re- 
duced to  two  by  the  union  of  the  Saybrook  and  Connecticut 
colonies.     The  Connecticut  colony  was  conspicuous  for  the 
liberal  and  democratic  government  established  by  its  people. 
The  New  Haven  colony  was  less  tolerant  in  religious  matters. 
After  a  separate  existence  of  about  thirty  years  the  New  Haven 
colony  was  absorbed  by  Connecticut.     The  three  original  col- 
onies were  thus  reduced  to  one. 

147.  The   Charter.  —  The  charter  of    Connecticut,   which 
was  obtained  through  the   efforts  of  Winthrop,  gave  a  great 

deal  of  liberty  to 
the  people,  allow- 
ing them  to  elect 
all  their  officers. 
Consequently  they 
prized  it  highly, 
and  when  the  Eng- 
lish government 
demanded  the 
surrender  of  their 
charter,  they  put 
off  compliance 
until  Andros  with 
a  large  escort 
came  to  Hartford 

to  enforce  the  king's  order.  Andros  held  a  conference  in  the 
evening  with  the  governor  and  council  of  the  colony.  Tradition 
says  that  the  lights  in  the  room  were  suddenly  extinguished, 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  QI 

and  the  charter  was  hidden  in  a  hollow  oak-tree.  Andros, 
however,  took  control  of  affairs,  and  for  a  few  years  the  charter 
government  was  overthrown.  With  the  downfall  of  Andros 
(§  162)  the  old  charter  (or  a  duplicate)  was  brought  from  its 
concealment,  the  government  under  it  was  reorganized,  and 
continued  in  force  until  the  Revolution. 

148.  Summary.  —  The  first  settlers  of  Connecticut  came  from  Massa- 
chusetts. Settlements  were  formed  at  Hartford  by  Thomas  Hooker,  and 
at  New  Haven  by  John  Davenport.  For  a  time  three  colonies  existed,  the 
Connecticut  colony,  the  New  Haven  colony,  and  the  Saybrook  colony. 
Finally  these  were  combined  into  the  Connecticut  colony.  The  charter  of 
Connecticut  was  liberal  in  its  provisions,  and  was  much  prized  by  the  peo- 
ple. During  the  period  of  Andros's  rule  over  New  England  the  charter 
gevernment  of  Connecticut  was  overthrown,  but  was  restored  with  the 
downfall  of  James  II. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

149.  Settlement.  —  When  Roger  Williams  was  driven  from 
Massachusetts  (§  138),  he  fled  southward  through  the  woods, 
and  with   a  few  followers  established  a  settlement  which  he 
called   Providence   at  the   head  of  Narragansett  Bay  (1636). 
The  following  year  a  party  of  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson's  follow- 
ers made  a  settlement  on  an  island  in  the  bay,  afterward  known 
as  Rhode  Island.     These  settlements   and  others  near  them 
were  subsequently  united  under  the  name  of  "  The  Colony  of 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations." 

150.  Government.  —  Roger  Williams  declared  that  in  his 
colony  no  one  should  ever  be  disturbed  on  account  of  his  reli- 
gious belief.     The   settlers  were   chiefly  refugees  from  other 
colonies.     They  were  independent  thinkers  in  politics  as  well 
as  in  religion,  and  they  did  not  get  along  peaceably  together. 
For  twenty-seven  years  there  were  quarrels  between  the  differ- 
ent  settlements    with   only   a   weak   government   over   them. 
Finally  a  charter  was  secured  which  united  the  different  settle- 


92 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


ments,  granted  entire  religious  freedom,  and  allowed  the  people 
to  elect  their  own  officers. 

151.  Separate  Position.  —  Rhode  Island  was  the  first  col- 
ony to  establish  the  great  principle  of  complete  religious  free- 
dom.1    Because  of  her  independent  position  in   religion,   as 
well  as  on  account  of  her  unsettled  government,  Rhode  Island 
was  viewed  with  suspicion  and  dislike  by  the  other  New  Eng- 
land colonies,  and  was  not  allowed  to  join  the  New  England 
Confederation  (§  157). 

152.  Summary.  —  Rhode  Island  was  founded  by  Roger  Williams,  who, 
when   banished   from    Massachusetts,  established   the   first  settlement  at 
Providence  in  1636.     The  next  year  a  party  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson's  followers 
settled  "  Rhode  Island,"  in  Narragansett  Bay.     Roger  Williams  enforced 
the  great  principle  of  religious  freedom,  and  his  colony  became  a  refuge  for 
the  oppressed.     The  government  of  Rhode  Island  was  at  first  turbulent 
and  unsettled.     Finally  a  charter  was  obtained  uniting  the  different  settle- 
ments.    After  this  better  order  prevailed. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

153.  Some  of  those  who  suffered  from  religious  persecution 
in  the  older  New  England  colonies,  went  to  New  Hampshire, 
where  settlements  had  been  made  as 
early  as  1623.  The  population  in  this 
colony  increased  very  slowly,  owing  to 
confusion  in  land  titles  and  disputes 
about  government.  It  was  too  weak  for 
independence  and  was  several  times 
united  to  Massachusetts ;  it  finally  be- 
came a  separate  colony  in  1741.  New 
Hampshire  had  no  charter,  but  was 
subject  directly  to  the  king.  Vermont 
was  claimed  as  part  of  her  territory. 

1  Maryland  gave  equal  freedom  to  all  Christians. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  93 

154.  Summary.  —  New  Hampshire  was  settled  by  immigrants  from 
other  New  England  colonies.  Its  growth  was  slow.  In  1741  it  became  a 
separate  colony,  subject  directly  to  the  king. 


NEW    ENGLAND   AS    A  WHOLE. 

155.  Close  Relation  of   the  Colonies.  —  The   region   em- 
braced by  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode 
Island,  and  New  Hampshire  was  first  called  "  New  England  " 
by  Captain  John   Smith,  on  a  map  of  his  explorations.     The 
"  Council  for  New  England,"  to  whom  the  land  was  granted  in 
1620,  adopted  the  name  in  their  title.     The  early  history  of 
these  colonies  is  in  many  respects  similar.     We  have  seen  that 
Massachusetts  was  the  parent  colony  of  all  the  others.     The 
character,  occupation,  and  religion  of  the  settlers,  their  mode 
of  local  government,  their  dangers,  and  their  interests,  were 
much  the  same. 

The  following  topics  relate  to  events  which  to  some  extent 
affected  all  these  colonies. 

156.  The  Pequod  War.  —  The  Pequods,  one  of  the  strongest 
and  fiercest  Indian   tribes  of  New  England,  came  in  contact 
with  the  settlers  in  the  Connecticut  valley,  soon  after  the  first 
settlements  were  made  in  that  region.     They  tried  to  get  the 
help   of   the   powerful    Narragansetts   of   Rhode    Island,  but 
through   the  influence  of  Roger  Williams,  the   Narragansetts 
refused  aid.     The  weak  Connecticut  people,  in  their  distress, 
appealed  to  Massachusetts.     A  little  army  of  five  hundred  men 
was  raised  by  the  two  colonies.    Under  Captain  John  Mason, 
they  attacked  the  leading  Pequod  village  on  the  Mystic  River 
in   Connecticut.      The   Indians  were  completely  routed,   and 
seven  hundred,  including  women  and  children,  were  slain,  and 
two  hundred  taken  prisoners.  The  captives  were  sold  as  slaves, 
and  the  great  tribe  of  Pequods  was  extinguished. 


94  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

157.  The  New  England  Confederation.  —  The  Pequod  War 
taught  the  colonies  the  advantage  of  union  in  time  of  danger. 
In  1643,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New 
Haven    determined    upon  a  permanent    Confederation   to    be 
known  as  "The  United  Colonies  of  New  England."1      The 
object   of   the   Confederation   was    to   gain    better   protection 
against  foreign  and  domestic  enemies.     Each  colony  was  left 
perfectly  free  to  manage  its  own  internal  affairs,  while  exter- 
nal matters  pertaining  to  the  good  of  all  were  entrusted  to 
eight  commissioners,  two  chosen  by  each  colony.     This  is  im- 
portant as  the  first  confederation  of  British  colonies  in  Amer- 
ica.    It  lasted  more  than  forty  years.     Besides  affording  pro- 
tection against  the  Indians  it  brought  the  New  England  colo- 
nies into  closer  sympathy  with  each  other,  and  showed  the 
other  colonies  the  advantages  of  union. 

158.  King  Philip's  War  ;  Cause.  —  On  the  death  of  Mas- 
sasoit,  who  for  so  many  years  had  been  a  friend  of  the  whites, 
his  eldest  son,  Alexander,  became  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Wam- 
panoags,  who  lived  near  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay.     As 
Alexander  was   suspected  of  plotting  against  the   settlers,   a 
company  of  men  from  Plymouth  surprised  him  in  his  hunting 
lodge,  and  took  him  prisoner.     This  insult  made  the  proud 
Indian  furious.     He  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  fever,  from 
which    he    died    soon    after   his   release  from   captivity.     His 
brother,   Philip,   succeeded    him    as   chief.      Philip   possessed 
unusual  ability  and  wielded  a  great  influence  over  the  New 
England  tribes.     He  hated  the  whites  and  awaited  an  occasion 
for  an  outbreak.    When  three  Indians  of  his  tribe  were  accused 
of  murder,  found  guilty,  and  put  to  death  by  the  colonists, 
Philip  called    his  warriors  to  arms,  and  a  bloody  war  began 


1  For  exclusion  of  Rhode  Island  see  paragraph  150. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


95 


159.  Battles  and  Massacres. —  One  Sunday  as  the  people  of 
the  village  of  Swanzey  in  the  Plymouth  colony  were  returning 
from  church,  they  were  attacked  by  the  savages  and  a  number 
of  them  were  killed.  Troops  were  sent  from  Massachusetts  to 
aid  the  Plymouth  peo- 
ple. The  Indians  were 
attacked  and  beaten, 
but  escaped  from  place 
to  place.  Philip  now 
drew  to  his  support 
nearly  all  the  New 


^m 


ttacking  a  Settlement. 


England  tribes  and  the  war  spread  into  all  the  colonies. 
According  to  a  secret  plot,  a  number  of  different  settlements 
were  attacked  at  the  same  day  and  hour.  Hadley,  Massa- 
chusetts, was  surprised  while  the  people  were  at  church.  In 
the  fight  that  followed  it  is  said  that  a  strange  man  with  long 
beard  rushed  to  the  front,  rallied  the  hard-pressed  colonists, 
and  led  them  to  victory.  This  was  Goffe,  the  "  regicide,"  one 
of  the  judges  who  had  condemned  King  Charles  I.  to  death, 


96  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  who,  having  fled  to  America,  was  living  in  concealment 
among  the  Puritans  of  Massachusetts.  In  a  Rhode  Island 
swamp  a  severe  battle  was  fought  with  the  Narragansetts,  in 
which  the  savages  were  completely  defeated.  .  Philip's  allies 
began  to  desert  him.  His  wife  and  little  son  were  captured. 
"  My  heart  breaks  !  "  he  cried,  "  I  am  ready  to  die."  He  was 
at  last  shot  by  a  faithless  Indian.  By  his  death,  the  power  of 
the  Indians  was  broken. 

160.  Results  of  King  Philip's  War.  —  King  Philip's  War 
was  the  severest    blow  the   New   England   colonies    suffered. 
The  struggle  lasted  two  years,  and  while  it  resulted  in  the  com- 
plete overthrow  of  the  Indians,  yet  it  was  long  afterward  be- 
fore the  colonies  recovered  from  the  losses  which  it  caused. 
Over   six  hundred   men   were   killed.     Thirteen   towns   were 
destroyed,   six   hundred    houses   were  burned,  half  a   million 
dollars  worth  of  property  was  destroyed,   and  a  heavy  debt 
was  contracted,  requiring  the  taxes  to  be  greatly  increased. 

161.  The  Great  Revival A  reaction  against  the  stern 

theology   of   the   early  days   began    in   New   England  during 
the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  there  was  much 
looseness  of  religious  belief  and  conduct.     Then  followed  a 
period  of  intense  religious  excitement,  known  as  the  "Great 
Awakening."     Beginning  in  the  church  of  Jonathan  Edwards, 
in  Massachusetts,  the  revival  reached  its  highest  point  in  1740, 
under  the  preaching  of  George  Whitefield.    There  were  conver- 
sions in  nearly  every  town  in  New  England.     Many,  however, 
objected  to  the  great  excitement  that  accompanied  the  revival. 
Controversies  followed,  and  a  division  in  the  churches  was  the 
result.     There  was  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  general 
good  effect  of  the  revival.     It  certainly  exerted  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  subsequent  religious  thought  in  New  England. 

162.  New  England  under  One  Governor.  —  King  James  II. 
made  Sir  Edmund  Andros  governor  of  all  the  New  England 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


97 


colonies,  afterward  adding  New  York  and  New  Jersey  to  his 
jurisdiction.  The  charters  were  either  taken  away  or  declared 
annulled,  and  Andros  ruled  in  a  most  despotic  manner.  When 
the  people  of  England  banished  King  James,  the  New  Eng- 
land colonists  immediately  followed  their  example  by  deposing 
Governor  Andros.  The  colonies  were  then  allowed  to  resume 
their  old  forms  of  government. 

163.  Summary.  —  A  close  relation  existed  among  the  New  England 
colonies.  Important  events  that  affected  one,  affected  all.  The  war  with 
the  Pequod  Indians  originated  in  Connecticut.  Massachusetts  came  to  the 
aid  of  her  sister  colony  and  the  savages  were  completely  routed.  The  New 
England  Confederation,  formed  for  mutual  defense  against  the  Indians,  in- 
cluded all  the  New  England  colonies  except  Rhode  Island  and  lasted  forty 
years.  King  Philip's  War  began  in  Massachusetts.  There  were  numerous 
battles  and  massacres,  resulting  in  great  loss  to  the  colonists.  At  last 
Philip  was  killed,  and  the  power  of  the  Indians  overthrown.  Under  the 
preaching  of  Jonathan  Edwards  and  George  Whitefield,  there  was  a  memora- 
ble religious  awakening  in  New  England.  King  James  II.  placed  all  the 
New  England  colonies  under  one  governor.  When  King  James  was 
banished  by  his  subjects,  the  old  colonial  governments  were  restored. 

164.  Thought  Questions.  —  Is  there  any  persecution  on  account  of 
religion  in  the  United  States  to-day?  Do  you  know  of  any  religious 
intolerance?  What  circumstances  of  their  history  make  the  intolerance  of 
the  colonists  seem  inexcusable  ?  What  explanation  can  you  offer  for  their 
conduct  in  this  respect  ?  Compare  John  Smith  and  Miles  Standish  ?  Why 
did  the  Plymouth  Colony  have  a  patent  instead  of  a  charter?  Why  did 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  outstrip  Plymouth  ?  How  was  slavery  regarded 
250  years  ago?  Does  slavery  exist  anywhere  to-day?  Why  did  Con- 
necticut prize  her  charter  so  highly  ?  What  colonies  may  be  considered 
off-shoots  of  Massachusetts  ?  Fill  out  the  following  table  : 


COLONY. 

First 
Settlement. 

Date. 

1620 
1628 

By  Whom 
Founded. 

Religion 
of  First 
Settlers. 

Motive  of 
Founders. 

Mass  
Connecticut  .     . 

|  Plymouth 
<  Salem 

Brewster  and  others 
Endicott  and  others 

Separatist  ) 
Puritan      / 

Religious  freedom. 

Rhode  Island     . 

New  Hampshire 

98 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY-. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES). 


126. 


,   f  Their  religion. 
pTmouthN    ™ght  from  England. 

[  Dissatisfaction  with  their  new  home. 
Looking  toward  J  Authority  to  form  settlement. 
America.        \  Means  for  the  voyage. 
The  ships. 
First  land  seen. 


127. 

1 28.  The  Voyage. 

129.  Settlement. 
130. 


Government. 


f  Failure  to  reach  destination. 
\  Landing  and  settlement. 
Agreement  signed. 


First  Colonists. 


132. 


'33- 
L    *34- 


136. 

'37- 
138. 

139- 
140. 


First  governor. 
Classification. 
Sufferings. 

f  New  immigrants. 
Growth  of  Colony.  •{   New  patent. 

[_  London  stockholders. 

Capt.  Standish  :  Successful  dealings  with  Indians. 
Union  with  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

f  Founders. 
The  Beginning.^   Patent. 

[  Settlement. 
f  Purpose  of  founders. 
Government.  <j   Charter. 

[_  Removal  of  stockholders  to  America. 

f  New  settlements. 
Growth  of  Colony.  4  _,       , 

*     (_  Church  government. 

f  Roger  Williams. 
Religious  Disturbances.  J 


142. 
M3- 


__  Mrs.  Hutchinson. 
First  Slave  Ship. 
Indian  Wars. 

Belief  in  witches. 

Increase  Mather's  book. 

Persecutions. 

Repentance  of  the  people. 

Charter  annulled. 

_, 

Rule  of  Andros. 

f  Territorial  limits. 

•{ 

[  New  charter. 


141-  Witchcraft. 


Period  of  Oppression,  -j 
Union  with  Plymouth. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES.  99 

f  f  Dutch  trading  posts. 

145.  Settlement.  •{   Saybrook,    Hartford    and    New 

[       Haven. 
CONNECTICUT.  J   146.  Union  of  Settlements. 

f  Its  liberal  nature. 

147.  The  Charter.  <   Demand  for  its  surrender. 
[  [_  The  Andros  government. 

f  f  Providence. 

149.  Settlement. 


Roger  Williams'  views. 
RHODE   ISLAND.^  Govemment 


Charter. 
151.  Relations  with  other  New  England  Colonies. 

Settlement. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE.      153.^   Growth. 

^  Separate  Colony. 

'55- 

f  Name,  "  New  England." 
Relation  of  the  Colonies.  <  _ 
1  Common  interests. 

M 

1^ 

f  Attack  on  Connecticut  settlers. 

§ 

156. 

Pequod  War.  <j   Position  of  the  Narragansetts. 

£ 

[  Overthrow  of  Indians. 

<J 

f  Object. 

w 

I57- 

New  England  Confederation.  4   Management. 

< 

[_  Importance. 

Q    " 
B 

f  Cause. 

| 

158, 

159,  160.  King  Phillip's  War.  <   Battles  and  massacres. 

0 

[  Results. 

s 

M 

C  Origin. 

fe 

161. 

The  Great  Revival.  -\   Climax. 

w 

L  Results. 

s 

a 

^    162. 

f  N.  E.  under  one  governor. 
The  Andros  Government.  •{  _.  , 
[  Old  governments  restored. 

THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES- 
NEW  YORK. 

165.  Settlement.  —  All  the  colonies  thus  far  considered  were 
settled  by  people  of  English  birth.  New  York,  however,  owes 
its  settlement  to  the  Dutch.  By  virtue  of  Henry  Hudson's  dis- 


100 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


covery,  the  Dutch  claimed  the  Hudson  River  valley,  together 
with  the  entire  region  between  the  Delaware  Bay  and  Cape 
Cod,  which  they  called  New  Netherland.  At  first,  trade  was 
the  sole  object  of  the  Dutch,  and  no  attempt  at  settlement  was 
made,  though  "  trading  posts  "  were  established  on  the  banks 
of  the  Hudson  and  on  Manhattan  Island.  The  Dutch  West 
India  Company  obtained  control  of  New  Netherland,  its 
charter  bidding  it  "to  advance  the  peopling  of  those  fruitful 


New  York  in   1656. 

and  unsettled  parts."  In  1623  this  corporation  established 
settlements  at  Fort  Orange  (Albany)  and  at  New  Amsterdam 
(New  York). 

166.  The  Patroons.  —  To  encourage  immigration  vast  tracts 
of  land  were  given  to  any  member  of  the  West  India  Company 
who  should  introduce  a  colony  of  fifty  persons.  The  owners 
of  the  immense  landed  estates  thus  formed  were  called  "  pa- 
troons."  They  exercised  almost  absolute  power  over  their 
tenants,  and  their  domains  were  like  little  independent  states. 
When  the  Dutch  lost  New  York  the  rule  of  the  patroons  was 
overthrown,  yet  for  nearly  two  hundred  years  the  heirs  of  the 
old  patroons  continued  to  collect  rents  from  the  occupants  of 
the  lands. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 

167.  Dutch  Government.  —  The  Dutch 
were  usually  mild  in  their  treatment  of  the 
Indians,  and  were  very  successful  in  trading 
with  them.     All  of  Manhattan  Island  where 
New  York  City  now  stands  was  purchased 
for  trinkets  worth  about  twenty-four  dollars. 
Like  Virginia,  in  her  early  history,   New 
Netherland  was  governed  by  a  trading  cor- 
poration.    The  governors   of   the   colony, 
appointed  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany, were   all  more  or  less  incompetent 
and  tyrannical.     Peter  Stuyvesant,  the  last 
of  the  four  Dutch  governors,  was  honest 
and  energetic,  but  high-tempered  and  im- 
perious.1    He  was  frequently  engaged   in 
quarrels  with  the  settlers  of  Connecticut. 
At  the  head  of  a  small  army,  he  marched 
against  the  Swedish  settlers   on  the  Dela- 
ware, and    compelled   them   to   submit  to 
Dutch  authority. 

1 68.  Fall  of  the  Dutch  Power.  —  Eng- 
land claimed  New  Netherland  on  the  basis 
of  Cabot's  discoveries,   and    she  was  un- 
willing that  the  Dutch  should  possess  the 
land  and  thus  separate  her  New  England 
and  Southern  colonies.     In  1664,  an  Eng- 
lish fleet  was  sent  against  New  Amsterdam. 
The  town  was  unprepared  for  defense,  and 

1  An  Assembly  was  chosen  without  Stuyvesant's  ap- 
proval. It  met  and  issued  an  address  to  the  governor, 
asking  that  the  people  be  allowed  a  larger  share  in  the 
government.  The  haughty  Stuyvesant  replied:  "We 
derive  our  authority  from  God  and  the  West  India  Com- 
pany, not  from  the  pleasure  of  a  few  ignorant  subjects," 
and  refused  to  grant  the  request. 


101 


m 


102  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  citizens  were  tired  of  the  tyranny  of  their  governors  ;  so 
in  spite  of  Governor  Stuyvesant,  who  raged  and  swore  at  his 
people  for  refusing  to  make  any  resistance,  New  Amsterdam 
and  all  New  Netherland  were  surrendered  to  the  English.  The 
entire  region  was  presented  by-the  king  of  England  to  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  York.  In  honor  of  the  new  proprietor, 
the  name  New  York  took  the  place  of  the  Dutch  names  for 
the  colony  and  its  chief  town.  After  nine  years  of  English 
rule  a  Dutch  fleet  appeared  in  the  harbor  and  compelled  New 
York  to  surrender.  For  one  year  the  Dutch  rule  was  restored. 
Then  a  treaty  was  made  between  Holland  and  England  by 
which  New  Netherland  was  finally  transferred  to  the  English. 

169.  English  Rule.  —  New  York  continued  to  suffer  much 
from  bad  governors.     When  the  Duke  of  York  became  king 
of   England   (James   II.),  he   appointed   Sir   Edmund  Andros 
governor  of  all  New  England  and  New  York.     (§  162.)     The 
rule    of    Andros   was  unpopular  with  the  people.     When  the 
news  of  the  downfall  of  King  James  was  received,  the  deputy 
governor    of    New    York    abandoned    his    post    and    fled    to 
England.1     The  colonists  of  New  York,  like  their  New  Eng- 
land neighbors,   then  took  control  of  the  government.    Cap- 
tain Jacob  Leisler  acted  as  governor  until  the  king's  wishes 
could  be  known.     On  the  arrival  of  a  new  governor  from  Eng- 
land, Leisler  was  tried  for  treason,  and  was  convicted.     Gov- 
ernor Slaughter,  while  drunk  at  a  dinner  party,  was  induced 
by  the  enemies  of  Leisler  to  sign  his  death-warrant.    New  York 
remained  a  Royal  province  until  the  Revolution. 

170.  Summary.  —  By  virtue  of  Henry  Hudson's  explorations  the  Dutch 
claimed  the  territory  from  Delaware  Bay  to  Cape  Cod,  and  called  it  New 
Netherland.     They  soon  began  a  brisk  fur-trade  with  the  Indians,  and  for 
this  purpose  established  trading  posts  on  Manhattan  Island  and  on  the 
upper  Hudson.     The  Dutch  West  India  Company  obtained  a  grant  to  the 

1  Andros  himself  was  then  in  Boston. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


103 


New  Netherlands,  with  authority  to  form  settlements,  direct  the  govern- 
ment, and  control  the  trade  of  the  settlers.  Under  the  mild  rule  of  the 
Dutch  many  emigrants  from  neighboring  English  colonies  and  from  various 
European  countries  were  attracted  to  the  colony.  Governor  Stuyvesant 
conquered  the  Swedes  on  the  Delaware,  and  brought  them  under  Dutch 
authority.  England,  claiming  New  Netherland  on  the  basis  of  Cabot's 
discoveries,  sent  a  fleet  against  New  Amsterdam,  1664,  and  the  town  and 
all  New  Netherland  surrendered  to  the  English.  The  entire  region  was 
presented  by  Charles  II.  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  in  whose  honor 
the  name  of  New  York  took  the  place  of  the  Dutch  names  for  the  colony 
and  chief  town.  Nine  years  later  New  York  was  recovered  by  the  Dutch, 
to  be  held  by  them  only  one  year,  when  it  was  finally  transferred  to  the 
English.  James  II.  appointed  Andros  governor  of  all  New  England,  New 
York,  and  New  Jersey.  When  the  news  of  the  downfall  of  King  James 
came,  the  Andros  government  was  overthrown,  and  the  colonists  of  New 
York  took  control  of  affairs  with  Jacob  Leisler  acting  as  temporary  gover- 
nor. On  the  arrival  of  the  new  king's  governor,  Leisler  was  tried  for 
treason  and  executed.  New  York  remained  a  Royal  province  until  the 
Revolution. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

171.  Settlement.  —  The  lands  between  the  Delaware  and 
the  Hudson  had  been  claimed  by  the  Dutch,  the  Swedes,  and 

the  English.     This  country  was  a  por-    r          -— i 

tion  of  the  grant  made  to  the  Duke  of 

York  in  1664,  and  he  gave  it  to  Lord  . 
Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.  Car- 
teret  had  been  governor  of  the  Island 
of  Jersey  off  the  coast  of  England,  so 
the  grant  was  called  New  Jersey  in  his 
honor.  Under  a  nephew  of  Sir  George 
Carteret  as  governor,  a  settlement  was 
made  at  Elizabethtown  in  1665. 

172.  The   Colony   Divided.  —  Dis- 
putes soon  arose  between  the  proprie- 
tors and  the  inhabitants,  and  Berkeley,  thoroughly  dissatisfied, 
sold  his  interest  to  a  party  of  Quakers.     A  division  was  then 


IO4  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

made  into  East  and  West  Jersey.  The  Eastern  portion  was 
given  to  Carteret,  while  the  western  portion  was  left  to  the 
Quakers.  After  the  death  of  Carteret,  Penn  and  his  associates 
bought  East  New  Jersey,  and  the  Quakers  established  a  liberal 
government  there  like  that  in  their  western  colony. 

173.  East  and  West  Jersey  United.  —  King  James  II.  took 
away  from  the  proprietors  of  both  colonies  the  rights  of  govern- 
ment, on  the  ground  that  the  inhabitants  were  guilty  of  smug- 
gling.    The  disgusted  proprietors  soon  afterward  surrendered 
all  their  claims  to  the  crown.     East  and  West  Jersey  were  then 
(1702)  united  as  a  royal  colony.     Although  considered  a  sep- 
arate colony,  New  Jersey  was  not  allowed  a  governor  of  its 
own  until  1738.     During  this  period  the  colony  was  under  the 
administration  of  the  governor  of  New  York,  who  ruled  through 
a  deputy. 

174.  Summary.  —  The  territory  between  the  Delaware  and  the  Hudson 
was  a  portion  of  the  grant  made  to  the  Duke  of  York  in  1664,  and  he  gave 
it  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.     A  settlement  was  made  at 
Elizabethtown,  1665.    Berkeley  sold  his  interests  to  a  party  of  Quakers.     A 
division  was  then  made  into  East  and  West  Jersey,  the  eastern  portion 
given  to  Carteret  and  the  western  to  the  Quakers.     Penn  and  his  associates 
bought  East  New  Jersey,  and  the  Quakers  established  a  liberal  government. 
James  II.  took  away  from  the  proprietors  of  both  colonies  the  rights  of 
government.     They  soon  after  surrendered  all  their  claims  to  the  crown, 
and  East  and  West  Jersey  were  united  as  a  Royal  colony  (1702).     Still,  for 
thirty-six  years  New  Jersey  was  not  allowed  a  governor  of  its  own,  but  was 
under  the  governor  of  New  York,  who  ruled  through  a  deputy. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

175.  The  Quakers.  —  Among  the  persecuted  sects  of  Eng- 
land during  the  seventeenth  century,  none  were  more  harshly 
treated  than  the  Quakers.  These  people  believed  that  the 
teachings  of  Christ  should  be  followed  literally  in  all  things ; 
hence  they  refused  to  swear,  even  in  a  court  of  justice,  nor 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


105 


could  they  be  induced  to  fight  under  any  circumstances.  In 
conversation  they  used  the  terms  "  thee  "  and  "  thou."  Con- 
sidering all  men  absolutely  equal,  they  declined  to  take  off 
their  hats  as  a  mark  of  respect.  They  believed  that  all  forms, 
ceremonies,  and  written  creeds  should  be  avoided.  They  op- 
posed dancing,  theaters,  and  all  public  shows.  They  objected 
to  a  paid  ministry, 
and  held  that  any 
one  might  preach 
"when  the  spirit 
moved  him." 

176.  The  Founder 
of  Pennsylvania. — 
William  Penn  was  a 
wealthy  Quaker  who 
desired  to  find  a  re- 
fuge in  America  for 
his  oppressed  breth- 
ren.   The  king  owed 
Penn's  father  a  large 
sum  of  money.     He 
agreed  to  give  young 
Penn  forty  thousand 
square  miles  west  of 
the  Delaware  for  the 

debt.     The  grant  was  called  Pennsylvania  (Penn's  woods). 

177.  Settlement. —  In    1681    Penn's    first    colonists   were 
brought  over.     The  next  year  Penn  himself  joined  them,  and 
founded  the  capital  city  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Delaware. 
He  called  it  Philadelphia  (brotherly  love),  after  a  city  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament. 

178.  Growth  of  the  Colony.  —  The  growth  of  Pennsylvania 
was  rapid.     The  colony  was  well  governed  from  the  first ;  no 


io6 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


religious    persecution    was    allowed ;    the   Indians  were  fairly 
treated,  and  remained  on  good  terms  with  the  settlers.     Thou- 

sands  of  English 
Quakers  flocked  to 
the  colony,  likewise 
large  numbers  of 
Irish  and  German 
immigrants.  Before 
the  beginning  of  the 
Revolution  Philadel- 
phia was  the  largest 
town  in  all  the  col- 
onies. Penn  and  his  heirs  continued  to  govern  the  colony 
until  the  close  of  the  colonial  period. 

179.  Summary.  —  The  king  of  England  gave  William  Penn,  a  wealthy 
Quaker,  forty  thousand  square  miles  west  of  the  Delaware  in  payment  of  a 
debt  which  he  owed  Penn's  father.  The  grant  was  called  Pennsylvania.  In 
1 68 1  the  first  colonists  were  brought  over,  and  Philadelphia  was  founded. 
The  colony  was  well  governed  ;  no  religious  persecution  was  allowed ;  the 
Indians  were  fairly  treated,  and  large  numbers  of  Quakers,  and  Irish  and 
German  immigrants  flocked  to  the  colony.  Penn's  heirs  continued  to 
govern  the  colony  until  the  close  of  the  Colonial  period. 


's  Slate- Roof  House 


DELAWARE. 

180.  Settlement.  —  Soon  after  the  founding  of  New  Am- 
sterdam, the  Dutch  made  a  settlement  in  Delaware,  which  was 
destroyed  by  the  Indians  a  few  years  later.     The  first  perma- 
nent settlement  was  made  by  the  Swedes  at  Wilmington  in 
1638. 

181.  Conflicting  Claims.  — The  territory  was  in  turn  under 
the  control  of  the  Swedes,  the  Dutch,  and  the  English.     When 
the  English  authority  was   established,   Delaware,   along  with 
New  Jersey  and  New  York,  was  granted  to  the  Duke  of  York. 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


107 


The  duke  transferred  the  territory  of  Delaware  to  William  Penn, 
who  wanted  an  outlet  to  the  sea  for  his  colony.  Delaware 
then  became  a  part  of  Pennsylvania. 

182.  A  Separate  Province.  —  Her 

people  were  not  satisfied  with  the  union, 
however,  and  Penn  finally  allowed  them 
a  separate  Assembly.  In  1703  Dela- 
ware was  recognized  as  a  separate  pro- 
vince, although  she  still  remained  under 
the  same  governor  as  Pennsylvania. 

183.  Summary.  —  The  first  permanent  set- 
tlement was  made  by  the  Swedes  in  1638.    The 
territory  was  in  turn  under  the  control  of  the 
Swedes,  the  Dutch,  and  the  English.     Dela- 
ware was  a  portion  of  the  grant  made  by  King  Charles  II.  to  the  Duke  of 
•York.     It  was  transferred  to  William  Penn,  and  became  a  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania.   The  people  of  Delaware  were  not  satisfied  with  the  union,  and  Penn 
allowed  them  a  separate  Assembly.    In  1703  Delaware  was  recognized  as  a 
separate  province,  but  remained  under  the  same  governor  as  Pennsylvania. 

184.  Thought  Questions.  —  What  made  the  situation  of  New  Amster- 
dam favorable  for  trade  ?     What  two  colonies  owed  their  first  settlements 
to  great  trading  companies?     What  colonies  were  governed  by  a  trading 
company  though  not  settled  by  it  ?     Account  for  the  early  downfall  of  the 
Swedish  power  in  America.     Of  the  Dutch.     What  sects  were  not  guilty 
of  religious  persecution  in  colonial  times  ?     In  what  colonies  do  you  find 
intolerance  in  religion?    What  colonies  were  settled  by  persecuted  classes  ? 
What  colonies  were  originally  gifts  of   territory  to  friends  of  the  king  ? 
Copy  and  fill  out  the  following  table  : 


COLONY. 

First 
Settlement. 

Date. 

By  Whom 
Founded. 

Religion 
of 
Settlers. 

Motive  of 
Founder. 

New  York     . 

New  Amsterdam 

1623 

Dutch  West  India  Co. 

(      Dutch      ) 
1  Protestants  { 

Trade 

New  Jersey  . 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware  .     . 

Combine  in  one  the  table 


24,  164,  and  184. 


1 08 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


1 

1 

1 

0 

1 

s 

[:;        • 

M     A    -R 

Y      L      A 

N      D 

V        1 

R        G 

IN 

1           A 

4 

C  A   R   0 

L    1    N    A 

N.  C. 
S.  C. 

IGEORGIA 

EE 

P    L    Y, 

M    O    U    T 

H     " 

ASSACHl 

1  SETTS  . 

[               M  A 

S  S.    BAY 

R    H     O 

D    E        IS 

LA    N:  D 

{stYBBOOlfe:. 

Q 

0    N    N    E 

C   T    I    C 

U   T 

L-iiiilf 

i—  UH 

HAVEN         .  .- 

E 

NEW 

H    A     M     P 

SHIR 

£ 

I 

..,N.   E 

v/ip^igi 

0      R      K 

j                          t 

fm 

ST      JERSE* 

b-NEW      J 

E  R  S  E  Y 

PEN 

N  s  Y  L  y 

AN  r  A-  .;;.., 

t  ,  .,., 

.:-.  •..;•    -D-  -E 

L'      AW 

A    '  R  -,£;, 

Synchronal  Chart  of  the  Colonies. 

Questions  on  Chart  of  Colonies.  —  Copy  this  chart  on  blackboard  or  on 
paper.  In  the  space  representing  Virginia,  place  a  cross-mark  to  indicate 
relative  time  of  first  introduction  of  slaves.  What  events  in  other  colonies 
took  place  at  nearly  the  same  time  ?  Place  cross-marks  in  proper  positions 
on  your  chart  to  represent  important  events  in  the  different  colonies.  How 
many  and  what  colonies  were  founded  during  the  thirty  years  between  1620 
and  1650  ?  Find  a  period  of  50  years  during  which  no  colony  was  founded. 
What  colony  was  for  a  while  united  to  New  York  ?  What  colony  was 
once  part  of  Pennsylvania  ?  What  colonies  were  founded  by  people  from 
Massachusetts  ? 


THE    ENGLISH    COLONIES. 


109 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (MIDDLE  COLONIES). 

r  Dutch  claims. 

165.  Settlement.  <j   Trading  posts. 
[_  Settlements. 


NEW  YORK. 


1 66.  ThePatroons. 


fGrants  from  West  India  Company. 


'  [Power. 

.      f  Relations  with  Indians. 

167.  Dutch  Government.  •{  „ 

\  Governors. 

C  English  claims. 

1 68.  Fall  of  Dutch    j   English  conquest. 

Power.  I    Second  supremacy  of  Dutch. 

[_  Final  transfer  to  England. 
(  Incompetent  governors. 


169.  English  Rule. 


1  Jacob  Leisler. 


NEW  JERSEY. 


f  Conflicting  claims. 
171.  Settlement.^   English  grants. 
[  Settlements. 

f  Sale  of  eastern  part. 

•{  c,         , 

\  Sale  of  western  part. 

173.  The  Jerseys  J  The  king  and  the  proprietors. 
United.       I  Connection  with  New  York. 


172.  The  Colony  Divided. 


[75.  The  Quakers  of  England. 

f  His  purpose. 


176.  Founder  of  the  Colony. 


\  Grant  of  territory. 


PENNSYLVANIA.  «j   177.  Settlement. 


178.  Growth. 


Immigrants. 
The  Indians. 
Government. 


1 80.  Settlement. 


J  By  the  Dutch. 
\  By  the  Swedes. 


DELAWARE. 


f  English  authority  established. 

181.  Conflicting        _  b    ,          ^  . '     ,  ,r    . 

B   -}   Transfer  to  Duke  of  York. 
Claims.  „        ,          1,7      n 

[  Transfer  to  Wm.  Penn. 

182.  A  Separate  Province. 


IIO 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA. 

185.   Cause  of  the  French  Wars.  —  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  struggle  for  the  control  of  North  Amer- 


North  America  at   Beginning  of  French  Wa 


ic'a  had  narrowed  down  to  two  nations,  France  and  England. 
It  is  true  that  Florida  and  Mexico  were  held  by  Spain  ;  but 
the  Spaniards  were  so  intent  upon  the  gold  in  the  mines  of 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA.          Ill 

Mexico  and  South  America,  that  they  made  no  attempt  to  ex- 
tend their  settlements.  England  and  France  were  thus  left 
practically  alone  in  possession  of  the  continent.  There  were 
two  causes  that  made  a  conflict  between  them  inevitable.  The 
two  nations  were  old  enemies.  From  early  times,  long  and 
bloody  wars  had  been  waged  between  them.  A  slight  pretext 
was  enough  to  occasion  hostilities,  and  their  American  colonists 
were  always  ready  to  take  up  the  quarrel.  And  then,  as  the 
growing  settlements  began  to  encroach  upon  each  other,  local 
causes  of  enmity  arose.  Conflicting  claims  to  territory,  rela- 
tions with  the  Indians,  differences  in  the  religion,  occupation, 
and  character  of  the  English  and  French  settlers,  combined  to 
cause  constant  jealousy  and  to  bring  about  occasional  open 
outbreaks. 

186.  Limits  of  English  and  French  Settlement.  —  When 
the  long  struggle  began  —  toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  —  all   the  English  colonies  except  Georgia  had  been 
founded.      The    English    had    undisputed    possession   of    the 
Atlantic  coast  from  New  England  to  South  Carolina.     Although 
they  claimed  the  Pacific  Ocean  as  their  western  boundary,  yet, 
in  reality,  the  Alleghany  Mountains  marked  the  western  limits 
of  their  settlements  and  authority. 

The  French  had  built  forts  and  had  made  scattered  settlements 
in  Nova  Scotia,  along  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Great  Lakes,  and 
down  the  Mississippi.  Their  settlements  were  generally  small 
and  far  apart.  They  were  most  numerous  in  Acadia  (Nova 
Scotia  and  the  adjacent  mainland),  Canada,  and  the  lake  region. 

187.  Comparative  Strength.  —  At  this  period  the  French 
colonists  numbered  hardly  more  than  12,000.     The  total  popu- 
lation of  the  English  colonies  at  the  same  time  was  estimated 
at  200,000,  —  more  than  sixteen  times  as  many  as  their  French 
rivals.     The  French  plan  of  conquering  the  new  country  was 
chiefly  by  establishing  forts  and  trading-posts,  to  be  held  by 


112  HISTORY    OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 

trappers  and  fur-traders.  The  English  brought  over  farmers 
and  laboring  men  who  cultivated  the  soil,  and  made  permanent 
homes.  In  wealth,  as  in  numbers,  the  English  colonies  far  sur- 
passed the  French.  While  the  French  settlers  were  dependent 
on  the  mother-country  for  supplies  for  their  armies,  the  Eng- 
lish colonies  were  themselves  able  to  support  the  troops  for 
their  defense.  On  the  other  hand,  the  French  soldiers  were 
among  the  best  in  the  world.  Their  colonial  governors  were 
generally  able  and  patriotic  men.  The  French,  too,  by  living 
among  the  Indians,  often  intermarrying  with  them,  and  adopt- 
ing their  ways  and  customs,  gained  such  influence  over  the  sav- 
age tribes  that  they  could  enlist  their  powerful  aid  against  the 
English  in  almost  every  contest. 

188.  The  Iroquois  Indians There  were   some   Indians, 

however,  whom  the  French  could  not  control.     The  Iroquois, 
or  Five  Nations,  occupying  northern  New  York,  were  a  group  of 
powerful  and  semi-civilized  tribes.     Their  united  strength  .num- 
bered 4000  warriors.    They  had  well-built  villages,  and  fields  of 
corn,  beans,  and  pumpkins.     Their  discipline  and  government 
were  superior  to  those  of  most  other  savage  tribes.     The  loca- 
tion of  these  Indians  —  on  the  border  between  the  French  and 
English    settlements  —  and    their   acknowledged   power,   gave 
them  great  importance  in  the  approaching  war.     For  several 
reasons  they  disliked  the  French:    (i)  Champlain,  the  great 
French  explorer,  had  once  sided  with  their  enemies,  the  Algon- 
quins;    (2)  they  looked  upon    the   French   as  their  rivals  in 
trapping  and  fur-trading  ;   (3)  there  were  better  opportunities 
for  profitable  trade  with  the  prosperous  English  than  with  the 
French. 

189.  Period  of  the  French  Wars.  —  Including  varying  in- 
tervals of  peace,  the  contest  between  the  French  and  the  English 
in  America  lasted  for  seventy-four  years  (1689-1763).     This 
long  struggle  included  four  separate  wars,  all  except  the  last 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA. 


being  named  from  the  reigning  sovereign  of  England.  They 
are  (i)  King  William's  War,  1689-97;  (2)  Queen  Anne's  War, 
1702-13;  (3)  King  George's  War,  1744-8;  (4)  French  and 
Indian  war,  1754-63. 

190.  The  First  Three  French  Wars.  —  When  James  II.  was 
banished  from  England  by  his  subjects  he  took  refuge  in  France. 
Here  he  was  aided  by  the  French  in  his  effort  to  regain  the 
throne  from  William  and  Mary,  who  had  been  crowned  king 


rhlll      FIRST  THREE  FRENCH  WARS 


and  queen  of  England  in  his  stead.  This  led  to  a  war  between 
France  and  England,  in  which  their  American  colonies  became 
involved,  and  which  was  known  in  America  as  King  William's 
War.  Queen  Anne's  and  King  George's  Wars  also  originated 
in  Europe.  The  scene  of  conflict  of  these  three  wars  was 
New  York,  New  England,  and  the  French  territory  lying 
northward.1  Combined  forces  of  French  and  Indians  swooped 
down  upon  defenseless  villages  in  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts and  committed  dreadful  massacres.  The  colonial  troops, 
with  more  or  less  aid  from  England,  made  expeditions  against 

i  The  English  colonies  south  of  New  York  took  little  part  in  the  first  three 
French  wars.  During  King  William's  War,  however,  the  colonists  of  South  Carolina 
were  fighting  the  Spanish  and  Indians  of  Florida,  and  defeated  a  combined  French 
and  Spanish  expedition  from  Cuba.  (§  115.) 


114  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Quebec,  Port  Royal,  and  Louisburg  (the  latter  a  strong  fortifi- 
cation on  Cape  Breton  Island). 

191.-  Results  of  the  First  Three  French  Wars.  —  But  little 
change  of  territory  resulted  from  these  wars.  In  the  first  con- 
flict Port  Royal  was  taken  by  English  and  colonial  troops,  but 
was  given  back  to  France  at  the  close  of  the  war.  In  the  sec- 
ond War  Port  Royal,  with  Acadia,  was  again  captured.  This 
time  the  prize  was  kept  by  England,  and  never  again  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French.1  The  name,  Port  Royal,  was  changed 
to  Annapolis,  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne,  and  Acadia  was  named 
Nova  Scotia.2  In  King  George's  War  the  English  achieved  a 
splendid  success  in  the  capture  of  Louisburg,  the  strongest 
fortress  in  America.  It  was  given  back  to  France,  however,  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  colonial  troops 
who  had  taken  a  leading  part  in  its  overthrow. 

192.  The  French  and  Indian  War :    Importance.  —  This 
war  differs  from  the  other  French  wars  in  several  important 
particulars.     In  the  first  place,  hostilities  began  in  America 
before  war  had  been  declared  by  the  mother-countries.     It  was 
the  first  war,  also,  in  which  all  the  English  colonies  were  en- 
gaged.    It  was  the  bloodiest  of  the  wars,  and  far  the  most 
important  in  its  results. 

193.  How  the  War  Began. —  The  English  king  authorized 
the  governor  of  Virginia  to  grant  a  vast  tract  of  land  west  of 
the  Allegharries  to  the  Ohio  Company  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
onization.    The  French,  who  already  had  a  few  forts  in  this 
region,  arrested  the  English  immigrants,  and  established  new 
strongholds  in  the  disputed  territory.     Major  George  Washing- 
ton, then  a  young  man  of  twenty-one,  was  sent  by  the  governor 

1  Newfoundland  was  also  by  treaty  surrendered  to  England.      The  island  had 
been  occupied  by  the  English  since  1583,  but  fell  into  French  hands  during  Queen 
Anne's  War. 

2  Latin  for  New  Scotland,  to  correspond  with  New  England, 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA.          115 

of  Virginia  to  request  the  French  to  remove  their  forts.  Wash- 
ington performed  his  dangerous  mission  wisely  and  courage- 
ously, but  was  unable  to  induce  the  French  officers  to  retire. 
Soon  afterward  Washington  was  sent  with  a  company  of  Vir- 
ginia troops  to  the  relief  of  an  English  post  at  the  head  of  the 
Ohio  River,  then  threatened  by  the  French.  On  his  arrival  he 
found  that  the  French  had  captured  the  place,  and  had  named  it 
Fort  Duquesne,  after  the  governor  of  Canada.  He  repulsed 
the  advance  guard  of  the  French,  but  was  afterward  forced  to 
retire,  and  to  surrender  his  little  company  at  Fort  Necessity  (in 
southwestern  Pennsylvania).  Notwithstanding  this  surrender, 
the  young  commander  and  his  troops  received  the  thanks  of 
the  Virginia  Assembly  for  having  accomplished  so  much  with 
their  small  force. 

194.    England  Takes  a  Hand.  —  In  England  the  news  of 
the  surrender  of  Fort  Necessity  caused  great  indignation,  and 


a  plan  was  at  once  formed  for  driving  the  French  from  the 
entire  country.    General  Edward  Braddock  was  sent  to  America 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


with  about  1000  men.  At  Alexandria,  Va.,  Braddock  was  met 
by  the  governors  of  Virginia,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  and  Massachusetts,  and  a  plan  of  operations  was  agreed 
upon.  English  troops,  reinforced  by  colonial  forces,  were  to 
advance  and  capture  Fort  Duquesne  ;l  another  expedition  was 
to  take  Fort  Niagara  ;J  a  third  was  to  seize  Crown  Point ; 1  a 
fourth  was  to  attack  the  Acadian  peninsula.1  We 
shall  see  that  each  of  these  plans,  except  the  last, 
was  a  failure  on  the  first  attempt. 

195.  Braddock's  Defeat.  —  Braddock  was  a  brave 
and  experienced  soldier,  but  wholly  unfitted  for  fron- 
tier warfare.  He  was  used  to  battles  with  trained 
soldiers  on  the  open  plains  of 
Europe.  He  knew  nothing  of 
the  methods  of  fighting  savages 
in  pathless  woods.  He  started 
toward  Fort  Duquesne  with  a 
fine  army  numbering  2000  men, 
consisting  of  regulars  from  Eng- 
land and  provincials  from  Vir- 
ginia, Maryland,  and  New  York.  Washington  commanded  the 
Virginia  troops.  Refusing  to  listen  to  the  advice  of  the  colonial 
officers,  Braddock  advanced  through  the  forests,  his  troops 
encumbered  with  useless  baggage,  and  with  floating  flags  and 
rolling  drums,  as  if  no  enemy  were  near.  Within  a  few  miles 
of  Fort  Duquesne,  his  army,  while  passing  through  a  wooded 
ravine,  was  suddenly  attacked  from  ambush  by  a  strong  force  of 
French  and  Indians.  The  British  troops  were  thrown  into 
confusion  by  the  attack  from  unseen  enemies,  and  fired  wildly 
into  the  air.  The  colonial  soldiers  concealed  themselves 
quickly  behind  trees,  and  fought  as  the  savages  did.  Brad- 
dock  had  four  horses  shot  from  under  him,  Washington,  two. 

1  Find  these  places  on  the  map,  and  tell  how  their  location  gave  them  importance 
in  the  war. 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA.          I  I/ 

An  order  to  retreat  had  just  been  given  when  Braddock  fell 
mortally  wounded.  His  fall  caused  a  panic,  and  the  retreat 
became  a  rout.  Washington  and  his  troops  alone  saved  the. 
army  from  total  destruction. 

196.  Acadia.  —  In  the   same  year  a  force  of  British  and 
colonial  troops  sailed  from  Boston,  and  captured  the  few  re- 
maining French  forts  in  Acadia.1     The  French  settlers  of  this 
region  had  steadfastly  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to   England.     They  were   all    Roman    Catholics,   and   wholly 
under   the   influence   of   French  priests,  who  were  hostile  to 
English  rule  and  loyal  to  France.     England  considered  these 
French  Acadians  a  source  of  perpetual  danger  to  her  authority. 
A  cruel  order  was  issued  to  banish  them  from  their  homes  and 
confiscate  their  property.     The  plan  was  heartlessly  carried  out. 
About  4000  settlers  were  taken  from  their  homes  —  often  sepa- 
rated from  their  families  — 

and  scattered  in  different 
colonies  from  Massachu- 
setts to  Louisiana.  (In  the 
poem  "  Evangeline,"  Long- 
fellow touchingly  describes 
the  sufferings  of  some  of 
these  unfortunate  people.) 

197.  War  Declared.  — 

France  and  England  de- 
clared war  in  1756,  after  it 
had  been  raging  two  years 
in  America.  Each  side  sent 
over  ships  and  men,  and 

each  seemed  to  realize  that  this  was  to  be  the  final  struggle  for 
the  control  of  the  continent. 

1  This  region  had  been  ceded  to  England  at  the  close  of  Queen  Anne's  War,  but 
had  not  been  fully  occupied. 


Il8  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

198.  English  Reverses.  —  The  officers  first  sent  over  by 
England  were  inefficient,  and  were  jealous  of  the  colonial  lead- 
ers.    There  was   little   unity  of  action   between  the  different 
English  armies.     On  the  other  hand,  Montcalm,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  French  troops,  was  one  of  the  ablest  generals 
of   his   time.     His   troops  were  well    disciplined,   his   armies 
acted  in  harmony.       For  two  years  he  successfully  resisted 
the   attacks  of  the   English   upon  his  posts   in   the   disputed 
territory.1 

199.  The  Tide  Turned.  — In  1757  William  Pitt  became  the 
actual  head  of  the  British  ministry.     The  force  of  his  genius 
was   soon   observed   in   the    changed   condition    of  affairs  in 

America.  Inefficient  officers  were  re- 
moved to  give  place  to  able  and  experi- 
enced ones.  The  unjust  preference 
shown  to  English  regulars  over  the 
colonial  soldiers  was  no  longer  observed, 
and  all  troops  were  placed  on  equal  foot- 
ing. Energy  and  unity  of  action  took 
the  place  of  delays  and  jealousies. 

200.  Fall  of  French  Strongholds.  — 
One  by  one  the  great  French  strong- 
holds fell.  Louisburg  was  surrendered 
in  1758.  An  attack  on  Ticonderoga, 
under  General  Abercrombie,  was  badly  defeated,  but  the  next 
year  both  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English.  Fort  Frontenac,  on  the  north-east  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario,  was  captured,  and  the  French  fleet  on  the  lake 
destroyed.  Fort  Duquesne,  thus  cut  off  from  its  source  of 

l  During  this  period  of  French  success,  their  arms  met  one  reverse  in  the  defeat 
of  Dieskau  near  the  south  end  of  Lake  George.  After  their  victory  the  English 
erected  a  fort,  named  Fort  William  Henry,  near  the  battlefield.  Two  years  later  this 
fort  was  captured  by  Montcalm.  Many  of  its  helpless  defenders  were  cruelly  mur- 
dered by  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French,  Montcalm  being  unable  to  control  them. 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA.          I  1 9 

supplies,  was  abandoned  on  the  approach  of  an  English  army. 
Washington,  who  led  the  advance  guard,  planted  the  English 
flag  on  the  deserted  ramparts,  and  changed  the  name  of  the 
place  to  Fort  Pitt  (now  Pittsburg),  in  honor  of  the  great 
British  minister.  Niagara  was  also  taken,  thus  completely 
cutting  off  the  communication  between  Canada  and  Louisiana. 

201.   The  Last  Great  Battle.  —  All  that  now  remained  to 
France  were  a  few  strongholds  along  the  St.  Lawrence  and  an 
island  at  the  north  end  of  Lake  Champlain.     Quebec,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  French  province 
of  Canada,  was  at  once       r\* 
the    strongest    and    the 
most  important  of  these 
defenses.     That  part  of 
the  town  known  as  the 
"upper  city"  is  situated 
on    a    steep    bluff    over- 
hanging the  St.  Lawrence 
River.       General    Mont- 
calm,    who    commanded 

the  defenders,  had  about  13,000  men.  These  were  strongly 
posted  for  a  distance  of  several  miles  along  the  north  bank 
of  the  stream.  The  English  forces  under  General  Wolfe 
numbered  10,000  men.  Wolfe  spent  four  months  in  the 
vain  effort  to  draw  his  skillful  antagonist  into  a  fight  in  the 
open  field,  or  to  surprise  some  weak  place  in  his  defenses. 
At  last  the  keen  eye  of  the  English  leader  espied  with  his  glass 
what  seemed  to  be  a  ravine  threading  its  way  down  the  preci- 
pice. Closer  observation  proved  it  to  be  a  path.  Wolfe  re- 
solved to  make  a  last  desperate  attempt  to  take  the  city  by 
way  of  this  perilous  ascent.  In  the  dead  of  night,  boatloads 
of  English  soldiers  floated  silently  down  the  stream,  landed  at 
the  foot  of  the  hidden  path,  and  in  single  file  climbed  to  the 


I2O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

top.  Here,  on  a  lofty  plain,  called  the  Heights  of  Abraham, 
the  few  astonished  guards  were  overpowered,  and  5000  troops, 
with  Wolfe  at  their  head,  ranged  themselves 
in  battle  line  before  their  enemies  were 
aware  of  their  presence.  The  French  rushed 
desperately  to  the  attack.  Both  generals 
were  mortally  wounded.  In  his  dying  mo- 
ments Wolfe  heard  the  cry,  "  They  run  ! " 
"  Who  run  ? "  he  gasped.  "  The  French  ! " 
"  God  be  praised  ! "  he  murmured,  "  I  die 
happy."  Five  days  after  this  victory  the 
city  was  surrendered. 

202.  Close  Of  the  War.— The  next  year 
the  French  attempted  to  recapture  Quebec. 
The  effort  failed,  and  a  few  months  later 
Montreal  and  all  the  French  ports  in  Canada 
were  surrendered  to  the  English.  Although 
the  fall  of  Canada  closed  the  contest  in 
America,  war  continued  to  be  waged  else- 
where between  France  and  England.  In  1762  Spain  entered 
the  war  to  aid  France  ;  but  Great  Britain  completely  conquered 
both  nations.  In  1763  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris. 
France  yielded  to  Great  Britain  all  her  possessions  in  North 
America  east  of  the  Mississippi.1  Spain  agreed  to  give  up 
Florida  to  Great  Britain  in  exchange  for  the  city  of  Havana, 
Cuba,  which  an  English  fleet  had  captured  the  year  before. 

203.  Results  of  the  French  Wars. — The  close  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War  marks  the  downfall  of  the  French 
power  in  America.  All  the  vast  region  conquered  for  France 
by  her  explorers,  missionaries,  traders,  and  settlers  was  thus 
wrested  from  her  grasp  by  her  most  hated  enemy.  England 

1  The  territory  of  France  west  of  the  Mississippi  was  ceded  to  Spain  to  prevent 
its  falling  into  the  hands  of  England. 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA. 


121 


had  now  undisputed  control  of  the  eastern  half  of  North 
America,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
four  wars  had  cost  each  side  thousands  of  lives  and  millions 
of  money.  For  the  Ameri- 
can colonists  other  results 
were  wrought  besides 
those  measured  in  terri- 
tory, lives,  and  money. 
The  wars  united  the  peo- 
ple. The  widely  separated 
colonists  learned  to  act 
together  against  a  com- 
mon foe.  The  success  of 
colonial  troops,  fighting 
side  by  side  with  English 
regulars,  taught  them  self- 
reliance  and  independence.  The  hard  experiences  of  war  gave 
the  colonial  soldiers  valuable  military  training,  and  developed 
the  genius  of  such  leaders  as  Washington,  Putnam,  Stark, 
Sumter,  Marion,  and  others.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  French  wars  were  a  training-school  to  the  American 
colonists  for  the  great  struggle  with  the  mother-country  which 
began  twelve  years  later. 


at  Close  of  French  Wars,  I  763. 


204.  Summary.  —  The  French  wars  extended  over  a  period  of  seventy- 
four  years,  from  1689  to  1763.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period,  England 
held  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New  England  to  South  Carolina.  France 
controlled  the  region  between  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  head 
of  Lake  Superior,  and  from  the  source  of  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth. 
The  first  three  wars,  William's,  Anne's,  George's  (mnemonic  word,  W.-A.-G.), 
originated  in  Europe,  were  waged  chiefly  on  the  frontiers  of  New  England 
and  New  York,  and,  save  in  the  surrender  of  Acadia  by  the  French,  re- 
sulted in  no  change  of  territory.  In  the  last  and  most  important  war,  the 
French  and  Indian,  all  the  English  colonies  were  concerned.  It  originated 
in  America  over  a  question  of  disputed  territory.  The  English  were  un- 
successful until  the  genius  of  William  Pitt  turned  the  tide.  The  last  great 


122  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

French  stronghold,  Quebec,  fell  after  a  desperate  battle,  in  which  both 
generals,  Wolfe  and  Montcalm,  were  killed.  By  the  treaty  of  peace,  1763, 
France  gave  to  England  all  her  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi ;  Spain 
gave  Florida  to  England.  To  the  English  colonists,  the  French  Wars 
were  a  valuable  preparation  for  the  approaching  struggle  with  the  mother- 
country. 

205.  Thought  Questions.  —  What  first  attracted  the  French  to  the 
country  about  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  ?  Why  did  they  follow  the 
water-courses  in  their  explorations  and  settlements  ?  Why  did  so  many 
French  Huguenots  settle  in  the  English  rather  than  in  the  French  colonies  ? 
What  does  the  fact  that  European  colonists  in  America  were  so  ready  to 
take  up  the  quarrels  of  the  mother-country  prove?  How  did  it  happen 
that  so  few  colonies  were  engaged  in  the  first  three  French  wars  ?  Why 
were  all  the  colonies  united  in  the  French  and  Indian  War?  Did  the 
Iroquois  Indians  pursue  the  wisest  course  ?  Was  the  English  claim  to  the 
land  west  of  the  Alleghanies  more  just  than  that  of  the  French?  Give 
reason  for  your  opinion.  Show  how  each  side  might  claim  that  the  other 
began  the  war.  What  excuse  had  the  English  ?  the  French  ? 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (FRENCH  WARS  IN  AMERICA). 

.     f  Struggle  for  control  of  North  America. 
185.  Cause  of  French      ,«,         .  . 

1   Old  enmities. 
Wars. 

^  Local  differences. 

iou.    xeiiiiuuai  fussessums. 
> 

I 

I 
M 

s 


1 86.  Territorial  Possessions. 

L  French. 

Number  of  colonists. 

187.  Comparative  Strength.  <   Plans  of  conquest. 

Advantages  of  each. 
Importance  in  the  struggle. 

188.  Iroquois  Indians.  •{   Advancement  toward  civilization. 

Hostility  toward  French. 

King  William's. 

189.  Period  of  the  French  Wars.  ^   Q?~»  Anne's. 

King  George  s. 


I  French  and  Indian. 
f  190:  Causes  and  Incidents. 

FIRST   THREE  j  f  King  William's  War. 

WARS.         1    191.  Territorial  Changes.  <j   Queen  Anne's  War. 
I  [  King  George's  War. 


DOWNFALL    OF    FRENCH    POWER    IN    AMERICA.          123 

192.  Importance. 

f  Grant  to  Ohio  Company. 

j    Encroachments  of  French. 

193.  Beginning  of  the  War  •(.„,.          , 

j    Washington's  mission. 

i.  Surrender  at  Fort  Necessity. 
f  Feeling  in  England. 

194.  Troops  from  England.  -{   General  Braddock. 

[  Plan  of  operations. 
(  His  ignorance  of  frontier  warfare. 

195.  Braddock's  Defeat.  -\   March  of  his  army. 

[_  Attack  of  French  and  Indians. 

-    .  f  Capture  of  French  forts. 

196.  Acadia.   <  _      .  *•-%'• 

(_  Cruel  treatment  of  colonists. 

197.  War  Declared. 

f  Weakness  of  English  troops. 

198.  English  Reverses.  <j   Advantages  of  the  French. 

^  First  two  years  of  war. 

,     f  William  Pitt. 
199-  The  Tide  Turned.  |  Changed  ^.^  ^  America_ 

f  Louisburg. 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point. 

200.  Fall  of  French  Strongholds.  <   Fort  PYontenac. 

I    Fort  Duquesne. 
[  Niagara. 
Situation  of  Quebec. 

,    Forces  of  Wolfe  and  Montcalm. 

201.  The  Last  Battle.    ; 

The  surrender. 
Canada  surrendered  to  the  English. 

202.  Close  of  the  War.  -\  Treaty  of  peace. 

Changes  of  territory. 


RESULTS   OF   THE  1  f  „  g     ,  P, 

FRFNCH    WARS        f  2°3' ^    Cost  of  the  wars- 
FRENCH   WARS,.     J  ^  Benefits  to  English  colonists. 


124  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES. 

206.  Introductory.  —  The  downfall  of  the  French  power  in 
America  (1763)  marks  the  close  of  an  era  in  the  history  of 
the  English  colonies.     Now  begins  the  story  of  quarrels  with 
the  mother-country,  the   long  and  bloody  war  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  the  establishment  of  the   Republic  of  the   United 
States. 

Before  entering  upon  this  period,  so  full  of  stirring  scenes 
and  momentous  changes,  we  may  pause  a  moment  to  consider 
the  home-life  of  the  people  in  the  old  colonial  days,  soon  to 
pass  away  forever. 

207.  Geographical   Limits.  —  Virginia,  the  oldest   colony, 
had  now  been  established  156  years;  Georgia,  the  youngest, 
31  years.     There  had  been  many  changes  in  territorial  limits. 
In  some  cases,  colonies  were  formed  from  the  union  of  other 
colonies,  as   Massachusetts,   Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and 
New  Jersey.     In  other  cases,  new  colonies  were  formed  by 
dividing   the   territory  of   colonies    already  existing,  as   New 
Hampshire,   Delaware,   and  the  Carolinas.     The   settlements 
occupied  a  narrow  strip  along  the  Atlantic  coast.     The  vast 
region  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  was  included,  how- 
ever,  in  the  territory  of  the   different   colonies,  their  claims 
being  based  on  royal  grants  or  on  explorations  made  by  the 
colonists  themselves.     Virginia  was  the  largest   colony,   and 
Georgia  ranked  next  in  size.     The  district  of  Maine  was  part 
of  Massachusetts,  and  the  present  State  of  Vermont  was  claimed 
by  New  York  and  New  Hampshire. 

The  map  opposite  page  2 1 1  will  show  the  limits  of  the  colonies 
at  the  close  of  the  colonial  period. 

208.  Population.  —  For  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  after 
the  founding  of  Jamestown,  the  growth  of  the  colonies,  as  a 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  125 

whole,  was  slow  and  beset  with  many  difficulties.  From  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  however,  there  was  a 
rapid  increase  in  population.  At  the  close  of  the  colonial  period, 
the  total  population  of  the  colonies  was  probably  somewhat 
over  2,000,000  (about  equal  to  that  of  New  York  City  to-day). 
Virginia  was  the  most  populous  colony,  her  inhabitants  num- 
bering half  a  million.  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  ranked 
next  to  her,  while  New  York  came  seventh,  and  Georgia 
thirteenth  in  population. 

The  Indians  had  nearly  all  been  driven  westward  across  the 
mountains.  There  were  no  cities,  most  of  the  people  living  on 
farms  or  in  small  towns.  The  largest  towns  were  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  Boston,  and  Charleston,  but  none  of  these  contained 
over  20,000  inhabitants. 

209.  Slavery.  —  Negro  slaves  were  found  in  all  the  colonies, 
and  there  was  little  prejudice  against  the  system,  North  or 
South.1  A  Dutch  vessel  brought  over  the  first  cargo  of  African 
slaves.  Afterward  English  and  New  England  ships  were  active 
in  carrying  on  the  traffic.  It  proved  extremely  profitable,  and 
was  encouraged  by  the  British  government.  At  first  the  slaves 
were  employed  chiefly  as  house-servants  ;  but  it  was  soon  found 
that  they  were  best  adapted  to  farm  labor  and  a  warm  climate. 
In  the  northern  colonies,  with  their  commercial  pursuits,  small 
farms,  and  cold  climate,  slavery  was  not  profitable,  and  the 
number  of  negroes  was  never  large.  In  the  southern  colonies, 
however,  the  great  tobacco  and  rice  plantations  created  a  de- 
mand for  slave  labor,  and  the  number  of  slaves  rapidly  in- 
creased. At  the  close  of  the  French  wars  there  were  nearly 
500,000  slaves  in  the  colonies,  of  whom  eight-ninths  were 
south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  (§  101). 

l  One  of  the  agreements  between  the  colonies  forming  the  New  England  Confed- 
eration was  that  runaway  slaves  should  be  delivered  up  on  demand. 


126  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

210.  Government.  —  The  English  colonies  were  all  subject 
to  the  Crown,  and  the  general  features  of  colonial  government 
were  similar.     Each  had  a  governor  and  a  law-making  body 
composed  of  two  branches,1  the  smaller  body  called  the  "  Coun- 
cil," the  larger  the  "Assembly."     The  Assembly  was  in   all 
cases  chosen  by  the  people.     With  these  resemblances  there 
were  certain  differences,     (i)  Massachusetts,2  Connecticut,  and 
Rhode  Island  each  had  a  charter  from  the  king,  giving  them 
the  right  to  elect  all  their  officers.     This  made  these  colonies 
almost   like   independent  republics,   so  far,  at  least,  as  their 
local  government  was   concerned.     They  may  be  called  the 
Republican  Colonies. 

(2)  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland  also  had  charters, 
but  these  charters  conferred  the  right  of  government  upon  the 
proprietors  instead  of  upon  the  people.     The  proprietor  ap- 
pointed the  governor  and  Council  for  his  colony.     These  were 
called  Proprietary  Colonies. 

(3)  Of  the  remaining  seven  colonies,  New  Hampshire  never 
had  a  charter,  and  the  original  charters  of  the  others  had  been 
annulled.     The  governor  and  Council  in  these  colonies  were 
appointed  directly  by  the  king,  and  they  were  known,  there- 
fore, as  the  Royal  Colonies. 

211.  Colonies  Classified.  —  The  life  of  the  people  in  the 
various  colonies  differed  greatly.    This  may  be  readily  accounted 
for,  when  we  remember  the  different  classes  of   Englishmen 
who  settled  the  colonies,  the  presence  of  a  large  foreign  popu- 
lation in   many  of  them,  the  varying  local   conditions,  as  of 
climate,   soil,   or   relations  with   the    Indians,   and   the    infre- 
quency  of  intercourse  between  settlements.    Yet  in  each  of  the 
three  great  groups, — the  New  England,  the  Middle,  and  the 

1  But  see  §  233. 

2  After  1692  the  governor  of  Massachusetts  was  appointed  by  the  king,  although 
the  colony  still  had  a  charter. 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  I2/ 

Southern  colonies,  —  we  find  a  certain  uniformity  in  character 
and  institutions.  Each  group  has  one  or  more  "parent"  col- 
onies of  which  the  others  are  offshoots,  and  which,  from  their 
predominating  influence,  may  be  considered  typical  colonies  of 
the  several  groups.  Thus,  in  the  Southern  division  Virginia 
is  the  representative ;  in  the  Middle  division,  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  ;  in  the  New  England  division,  Massachusetts. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES. 

212.  Occupations  of  the  People. — With  the  exception  of 
Connecticut,  the  soil  of  New  England  is  generally  rocky  and 
unfruitful,  and  so  offered  the  colonists  little  inducement  to  the 
pursuit  of  agriculture.  Farming  on  a  small  scale,  however, 
was  everywhere  followed,  —  grain,  hay,  vegetables,  hemp,  and 
flax  being  the  principal  products.  The  fisheries,  especially 
whale  and  cod,  were  the  source  of  greatest  wealth.  The  forests 
contained  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  valuable  timber,  which 
the  colonists  were  not  slow  to  utilize.  Shipbuilding  became  a 
leading  industry.  New  England  ships  carried  a  large  part  of 
the  commerce  of  all  the  colonies.  An  extensive  trade  with 
neighboring  colonies  and  the  West  Indies  sprang  up.  Ships 
loaded  with  New  England  products  would  visit  the  West  Indies 
and  return  with  cargoes  of  sugar,  molasses,  and  slaves.  Part  of 
the  sugar  and  molasses  was  converted  into  rum  and  again  ex- 
ported. The  New  Englanders  were  skillful  in  all  kinds  of 
handiwork,  and  labor  was  greatly  diversified.  We  find  soap- 
boilers, tinkers,  tailors,  glovers,  coopers,  shoemakers,  curriers, 
glaziers,  millers,  tallow-chandlers,  and  barber-surgeons,1  all 
represented  among  the  colonists. 

1  Before  the  days  of  regular  physicians,  barbers  practiced  a  rude  surgery.  The 
barber's  pole,  with  its  red  stripes,  was  first  used  as  a  sign  of  the  bloody  nature  of  the 
surgeon's  work. 


12$  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

213.  Town  Life  and  Government. — In  most  of  the  colonies 
towns  were  a  comparatively  late  growth,  springing  up  gradually  as 
population  increased.     In  New  England,  on  the  contrary,  towns 
existed  from  the  first,  and  lay  at  the  foundation  of  colonial  life 
and  government.     There  were  no  large  plantations.     The  set- 
tlers built  their  homes  near  together  around  their  "meeting- 
house."    Each  man  had  his  share  of  land,  and  also  certain 
rights  of  pasturage  in  the  "  common,"  an  open  field  belonging 
to  the  whole  community. 

The  term  "town"  included  not  only  the  village,  but  the  sur- 
rounding district  of  small  farms  within  convenient  distance 
from  the  meeting-house.  Each  town  had  a  representative  in 
the  colonial  Legislature,  besides  the  privilege  of  managing  com- 
pletely its  local  affairs.  At  stated  times  the  "town  meeting" 
was  held  in  the  church.  Here  every  citizen  (in  Massachusetts, 
only  church-members)  had  a  vote  and  an  equal  voice  in  debate. 
Taxes  were  levied,  laws  passed,  and  the  "  selectmen  "  to  whom 
their  town's  affairs  were  to  be  entrusted  for  the  coming  year 
were  chosen.  This  town  government  still  exists  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  as  a  system  of  local  self-government  deserves  our 
study  and  admiration. 

214.  Religion. —  The  religion  of  the  New  Englanders  filled 
a  large  share  of  their  thoughts,  and  influenced  every  depart- 
ment of  their  life.     In  doctrine  the  Puritan  Church  was  Calvin- 
istic.     In  government  it  was  Congregational  ;  that  is,  the  direc- 
tion of  church  affairs  was  in  the  hands  of  the  members  of  each 
congregation,   and  no  higher  authority  was   recognized.      In 
spirit  it  was  characterized  by  depth  of  conviction  and  bitter 
intolerance.     Freedom  of    thought  in    religion   was    rewarded 
with  stripes,   imprisonment,    or   banishment.1      The    ministers 
were  highly  educated  men,  usually  of  marked  ability  and  purity 
of  life.     They  were  looked  up  to  by  the  community,  and  ex- 

1  Rhode  Island  was  a  notable  exception  in  this  respect. 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  I2Q 

erted  a  powerful  influence  in  secular  as  well  as  religious  affairs. 
The  performance  of  religious  duties  was  enforced  by  law.  The 
people  were  summoned  to  church  by  the  beating  of  a  drum. 
Those  who  stayed  away  without  good  excuse  had  to  pay  a  fine. 
Certain  seats  near  the  pulpit  were  reserved  for  the  elders  and 
deacons.  The  men  were  seated  on  one  side  of  the  church,  the 
women  on  the  other.  Behind  these  were  the  children  and  ne- 
groes, and  back  of  all  the  "tithing  men,"  whose  business  it  was 
to  see  that  a  properly  reverent  spirit  was  maintained.  These 
last  were  armed  with  long  rods,  tipped  with  brass  at  one  end, 
and  a  rabbit's  foot  at  the  other.  As  the  sermon  was  often  two 
hours  long  and  the  prayers  in  proportion,  it  not  infrequently 
happened  that  the  head  of  a  restless  boy  was  sharply  rapped 
with  the  brass  end  of  the  tithing  man's  rod,  or  the  nose  of 
some  sleepy  old  lady  gently  tickled  with  the  rabbit's  foot  to 
rouse  her  from  her  slumber.  No  organ  nor  instrumental  music 
of  any  kind  was  allowed.  The  clerk,  or  precentor,  from  his 
station  in  front  of  the  pulpit  read  out  one  line  at  a  time  from 
the  "  Bay  Psalm  Book,"  while  the  congregation  vigorously 
chanted  it  after  him  in  different  keys.  This  was  called  "  sing- 
ing by  rule."  Singing  by  note  was  introduced  later. 

215.  The  Sabbath. —  Strict  observance  of  the  Sabbath  (it 
was  never  called  Sunday)  was  a  marked  feature  of  Puritan  life. 
The  Sabbath  began  at  six  o'clock  on   Saturday  evening,  and 
closed  at  sundown  on  Sunday.     Laws  to  punish  violations  of  the 
Sabbath  were  numerous  and  rigidly  enforced.     No  work  save 
what  was  absolutely  necessary,  no  travel,  no  amusements  were 
permitted. 

216.  Laws. —  The  laws  were  patterned  after  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  regulated  minute  details  of  life.     In  Massachusetts 
there  were  thirteen  offenses  punishable  by  death  (not  half  so 
many,   however,  as  in   England   at  the   same   time).     Among 
these  were  murder,  arson,  blasphemy,  abuse  of  parents.     Hang- 


130 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


ing  was  the  usual  mode  of  capital  punishment,  but  negroes 

were  sometimes  burned  at  the  stake.     Imprisonment  was  not  a 

common    punishment. 

For    minor    offenses    the 

stocks,   the    ducking-stool, 

pillory,  and  whipping-post 

were     used.       Sometimes  Duckine  St00'- 

the  forehead  or  cheek  of  the  culprit  was 
branded  with  a  hot  iron,  or  he  was  com- 
pelled to  wear,  sewed  on  his  garment,  a 
large  colored  letter  to  indicate  his  crime. 
Great  publicity  was  given  to  all  kinds  of 
punishment. 

217.  Grades  of  Society. —  There  were  various  grades  of  so- 
ciety among  the  New  England  colonists,  with  the  difference 
between  them  plainly  marked.  These  social  distinctions  were 
partly  brought  over  from  England,  and  were  partly  based  en 
education,  service  to  the  state,  and  wealth.  The  classes,  in 
order  of  rank,  were  gentlemen,  yeomen,  merchants,  mechanics, 
indented  servants,1  and  negro  slaves.  Goodman  and  goodwife 
were  the  ordinary  titles  of  men  and  women.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
could  only  be  applied  to  those  of  the  upper  class,  or  order  of 
"gentlemen."  We  are  told  that  Mr.  Josias  Plaistow,  having 
been  convicted  of  theft,  was  condemned  thereafter  to  drop  his 
title,  and  be  known  as  plain  Josias. 

The  seats  at  church  were  carefully  arranged  according  to  the 
social  rank  of  the  occupants.  The  order  of  names  in  the  college 
catalogues  was  determined  in  the  same  way.  It  was  not  till 
1772  that  Harvard  College  substituted  the  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment. 

1  These  were  persons  who  bound  themselves  to  service  for  i  term  of  years  in  pay- 
ment of  some  debt,  generally  for  their  passage  to  America.  For  the  origin  of  this 
use  of  the  word  "  indented,"  see  any  standard  unabridged  dictionary. 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES. 


2 1 8.  Dress.  —  Ordinarily  the  men  wore  a  homespun  jacket 
with  a  belt  around  it  at  the  waist,  breeches  reaching  to  the 
knees  and  tied,  black  stockings  that  came 

up  to  the  knees,  and  coarse  shoes.  Both 
men  and  women  wore  tall,  pointed  hats. 
The  women's  dresses  were  of  coarse  linen. 
They  usually  plaited  their  hair  in  a  simple 
braid,  but  on  Sunday  it  was  coiled  on  top 
of  the  head  and  powdered.  Among  the 
wealthy  classes  of  the  large  towns  there 
was  finer  dressing,  yet  undue  extravagance 
in  dress  was  prohibited  by  law.  A  law  of 
Massachusetts  forbade  the  use  of  veils, 
"immoderate  great  sleeves,"  and  "slashed 
apparel.  New  Eng|and  Co,onisti 

219.  Social  Life.  —  The  early  Puritans  were  a  stern  people, 
averse  to  social  pleasure,  though  in  later  times  this  soberness 

melted  to  a  considerable 
degree.  The  house-rais- 
ings, huskings,  and  quilting 
parties  gave  them  an  op- 
portunity to  help  each  other 
and  indulge  in  social  pleas- 
ures. They  did  not  observe 
Christmas,  because  they 
associated  it  with  Popish 
feast  days.  Their  holidays 
were  Thanksgiving  Day, 
Fast  Day,  Election  Day, 
and  Training  Day  (for 

Interior  of  Settler's   Home.  drilling  thfi  militia).       Mar- 

riage  was    regarded    as   a 

civil  contract,  and  was  usually  performed  by  justices  of  the 
peace.      Early  marriages  were  common.      One  writer  of  the 


132  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

period  speaks  of  "Miss  Wilkins,  an  old  maid  of  twenty-six, 
looked  on  in  Boston  as  a  dismal  spectacle." 

At  their  funerals,  in  the  small  towns,  the  coffin  was  carried  to 
the  grave  on  men's  shoulders.  After  the  burial  all  returned  to 
the  home  of  the  deceased,  and  closed  the  day  with  feasting  and 
drinking. 

The  houses  were  built  of  logs,  covered  with  rough  boards. 
Each  house  had  a  large  chimney,  with  its  immense  open  fire- 
place, often  large  enough  to  hold  a  wagon-load  of  wood.  As 
there  were  no  stoves  in  those  days,  the  cooking  was  done  in 
these  open  fire-places. 

220,  Education. —  From  the  beginning  of  their  settlement, 
the  men  of  New  England  took  a  deep  interest  in  education. 
One  of  their  first  acts  was  to  establish  a  system  of  free  schools. 
In  1649  education  was  compulsory  in  every  New  England  col- 
ony except  Rhode  Island.    The  result  was  that  every  one  could 
read  and  write.     Seven  years  after  the  founding  of  Salem,  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  appropriated  a  sum  for  estab- 
lishing a  college.     Two  years  later   Rev.   John    Harvard,  of 
Charlestown,  died,  leaving  his   library  and  half  of  his  estate, 
with  which  to  aid  the  plan.     In  gratitude  to  its  benefactor  the 
new  institution  was  called  Harvard  College,  now  the  oldest  col- 
lege in  the  United  States.     Yale  College  was  founded  in  Con- 
necticut, at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.    At  a  later 
period  Dartmouth  College  was  established  in  New  Hampshire, 
and  Brown  College  in  Rhode  Island. 

221.  Literature At  first  the  colonists  had  few  books,  and 

these  were  brought  from   England.     The   Bible  was  the  one 
book  most  universally  read,  studied,  and  memorized.     In  1639 
the  first  printing  press  was  set  up  at  Cambridge,  Massachu- 
setts.    It  was  the  beginning  of  the  next  century  before  the  first 
permanent  newspaper  in  America,  the  "Boston  News-Letter," 
appeared.     No  form  of  literature  was  more  widely  read  than 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  133 


Poor  Richard,  1733. 


AN 

Almanack 

For  the  Year  of  Chrift 

1733> 

Being  the  Krft  after  LEAP  YEAR . 

sfrtd  tnakif  fine*  tfo  Crealiai  Years 

By  the  Account  of  the  Eadem  Grttkt  7241 

By  the  Latin  Church,  when  O  art,  IT  6gifl 

By  the  Computation  of  #C/fC  ^742 

By  the  Roman  Chronology  5682 

By  the  Jtwtfi  HabWe*.  5494 

Wherein  r>  contained 
The  Lunations,  Eclipfes,  Jxwlgrnent  of 

the  Weather,  Spring  Tides,  Planets  Motions  & 
mutual  Afpcfls,  Sun  and  Moon's  Rifing  and  Set - 
<ing,  length  of  Days,  Time  of  High  Water, 
"Fairs.  Courts,  and  obfervablc  Days. 

Fitted  to  the  Latitude  of  Forty  Degrees, 

and  a  Meridian  of  Five  Hours  \Vetl  from  London t 
but  may  -without  fenfiblc  Error,  ferve  all  the  ad- 
jacent Places,  even  from  tffftofoundfad* to  South- 
Carvlfra- 


SAUNDERSt?hilom. 


PHILADELPHIAi 

Printed  and  fold  ty  S.  FRANKLW.  at  the  Nev* 

Printing-  Office  near  the  Market 


Titl*  Page  of  "  Poor  Richa 


134  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  almanac.  "Poor  Richard's  Almanack,"  prepared  and 
published  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  was  perhaps  the  most  popular 
of  these.  It  contained  scraps  of  history  and  poetry,  anecdotes 
and  epigrams.  Some  of  the  wise  sayings  of  "Poor  Richard" 
are  familiar  proverbs  to-day.  The  "  Almanacks  "  were  care- 
fully preserved,  some  households  possessing  a  file  of  them  for 
fifty  years.  The  ministers  of  New  England  produced  most  of 
the  writings.  The  books  were  nearly  all  on  theological  sub- 
jects. Jonathan  Edwards's  great  work,  "  On  the  Freedom  of 
the  Will,"  is  yet  considered  a  masterpiece  of  logical  reasoning. 
The  Puritans  were  great  versifiers,  but  produced  little  true 
poetry.1 

222.  Summary.  —  It  has  been  said  that  the  characteristic  features 
of  New  England  life  were  her  town  meetings,  schools,  and  churches. 
The  most  prominent  traits  which  lay  at  the  basis  of  these  institutions 
were  intense  earnestness,  intellectual  activity,  and  hatred  of  all  resem- 
blance to  priestly  rule.  The  people  were  orderly  and  industrious.  Their 
keenness  of  intellect,  thrift,  and  experience  in  trade  made  them  shrewd  bar- 
gain-drivers, whose  reputation  remains  to  their  descendants  to-day.  The 
influence  of  their  religion  on  all  departments  of  life,  and  their  intolerance 
toward  other  sects,  were  marked  features  of  their  civilization.  The  gentle, 
imaginative,  poetic  side  of  their  nature  was  not  developed.  The  educa- 
tional preeminence  of  colonial  New  England  was  pronounced.  The  same 
fixedness  of  conviction  that  led  her  people  to  ignore  the  rights  of  others 

l  The  most  popular  book  written  in  New  England  before  the  Revolution  was  a 
poem  by  Michael  Wigglesworth,  called  the  "  Day  of  Doom."  The  following  stanza 
from  this  "blazing  and  sulphurous"  work  describes  the  fate  of  the  wicked : 

"  Then  might  you  hear  them  tear  and  rend 
The  air  with  their  out-cries  : 
The  hideous  noise  of  their  sad  voice 

Ascendeth  to  the  skies. 
They  wring  their  hands,  their  caitiff  hands, 

And  gnash  their  teeth  for  terror  ; 
They  cry,  they  roar,  for  anguish  sore, 

And  gnaw  their  tongues  for  horror. 
But  get  away  without  delay ; 
Christ  pities  not  your  cry  ; 
Depart  to  hell,  there  may  you  yell 
And  roar  eternally." 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  135 

made  them  tenacious  of  their  own.  In  the  approaching  contest  with  Eng- 
land, Massachusetts  and  Virginia  led  the  way,  and  the  New  England  colo- 
nists furnished  to  that  struggle,  and  to  the  national  character,  some  ele- 
ments of  greatest  strength. 


THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES. 

223.  Occupations.  —  The  first  settlers  in  the  Southern  colo- 
nies found  a  climate  and  soil  admirably  adapted  to  agriculture. 
The  Indians  being  usually  friendly,  it  was  not  necessary  for 
them  to   live  in   towns    for  the   purpose   of    mutual    defence. 
Numerous  inlets  of  the  sea  and  navigable  rivers  afforded  a 
convenient  means  for  the  transportation  of  their  products  to 
European  or  colonial  markets.     The  introduction  of  slave  labor 
increased  the  profits  of  agriculture.     Accordingly,  farming  was 
from  the  first  the  universal  occupation  of  the  people.     There 
were  small  traders,  but  no  considerable  merchant-class.     Car- 
penters and  mechanics  were  rare.     On  each  plantation  a  few 
slaves  were  trained   as   blacksmiths,   shoemakers,   etc.      The 
commonest  articles  of  furniture  were  imported  from  England. 
A  few  iron  furnaces  were  established  in  Virginia  by  Governor 
Spottswood,  and  among  the  North  Carolinians  the  production  of 
lumber,  tar,  and  turpentine  in  a  measure  took  the  place  of  agri- 
culture.    The  professions  of  law  and  medicine  had  few  follow- 
ers, and  did  not  acquire  any  standing  until  near  the  Revolution. 

224.  Principal  Crops.  — In  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  rice 
and  indigo  were  the  principal  productions.     Cotton  was  raised, 
but  not  in  any  great  quantity.     In  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  North 
Carolina,  tobacco  was  the  universal  crop.     Its  culture  was  so 
profitable  that  everything  else  was  neglected,  and  it  supplied 
the  place  of  money  as  a  medium  of  exchange.     Taxes  were 
levied  in  tobacco,  and  salaries  were  paid  in  tobacco.     In  later 
colonial  days,  grain  became  an  important  crop  in  Maryland,  and 
large  quantities  of  flour  were  exported  from  Baltimore. 


136  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

225.  Absence  of  Towns.  —  Absence  of  towns  was  charac- 
teristic of  all  the  Southern  colonies.     Plantations  lined  the 
banks  of  the  navigable  streams,  and  each  planter  had  a  wharf 
on  the  river  front,  where  ships  laden  with  manufactured  articles 
from  England  would  land,  and  receive   in  return  cargoes  of 
colonial  products.     Thus  every  planter  was  his  own  merchant. 
Jamestown,  for  a  long  time  the  principal  town  of  Virginia,  con- 
sisted of  a  church,  court-house,  and  about  eighteen  other  houses. 
The  county-seats,  established  by  law  for  the  administration  of 
justice,  were  often  located  in  the  midst  of  a  forest,  and  con- 
sisted of  a  court-house,  a  prison,  a  poorly-kept  inn,  and  usually 
a  church.     The  Legislatures  of  several  of  the  colonies  passed 
laws  that  towns  should  be  established  at  specified  places  "for 
the   encouragement   of  trade   and  manufacture."     But  these 
"paper  towns"  were  failures.     At  the   close  of  the  colonial 
period,  Charleston,  with  a  population  of  about  15,000,  was  the 
principal  town  in  the  Southern  colonies.     Baltimore  came  next 
in  size,  then  Norfolk,  Virginia,  with  about  7000.     Savannah, 
the  largest  town  in  Georgia,  had  1200  inhabitants.     In  North 
Carolina  only  three  places  could  be  called  towns,  the  largest, 
Wilmington,  with  a  population  of  not  over  600. 

226.  Slavery.  —  The  culture  of  tobacco  and  rice,  by  mak- 
ing slave  labor  profitable,  fastened  the  institution  of  African 
slavery  upon  the  Southern  colonies.     Slaves  were  most  numer- 
ous in  South  Carolina,  where  they  outnumbered  the  whites  two 
to  one.     In  Virginia  the  slave  and  free  population  were  about 
equal.     The  prohibition  of  slavery  in  Georgia  was  found  to  re- 
tard the  growth  of  the  colony,  and  was  finally  removed  through 
the  protests  of  the  colonists  and  the  influence  of  Rev.  George 
Whitefield,  who  argued  that  the  transportation  of  the  negro 
from  his  savage  home  in  Africa  to  a  Christian  land,  where  he 
would  be  humanely  treated  and  forced  to  work,  was  a  benefit 
to  him.     Alarm  at  the  rapid  increase  of  slaves,  and  dread  of 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  137 

an  uprising  of  the  negroes,  led  to  the  passage  of  extremely 
harsh  laws  concerning  them.  Yet,  in  general,  the  relation  be- 
tween master  and  slave  was  a  kindly  one.1  The  negroes  were 
well  fed,  comfortably  clothed,  not  overworked,  and,  as  a  class, 
were  contented  and  happy. 

227.  Government.  —  At  the  close  of  the  colonial  period  all 
the  Southern  colonies,  except  Maryland,  had  come  under  the 
Royal  form  of  government  (§  210).     The  privilege  of  voting 
was  usually  restricted  to  land-owners.     Political  affairs  were 
controlled  by  the  large  planters,  who  were  cordially  supported, 
however,  by  the  small  farmers.     The  county 

(instead  of  the  town,  as  in  New  England) 
was  the  unit  of  local  government,  and  was 
modeled  after  the  English  shire.  Commis- 
sioners, or  justices  of  the  peace,  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  for  each  county,  to 
try  offenses  and  administer  such  affairs  as 
were  not  regulated  by  the  Assembly.  In 
some  instances  the  church  vestry,  chosen  by 
the  heads  of  families,  exercised  certain  powers 
of  government.  As  a  rule  the  people  were  '"  the  Pillory' 
not  hampered  by  legal  restraints  upon  the  minor  details  of 
their  conduct.  The  whipping-post  was  the  common  means  of 
punishing  violators  of  the  law,  though  the  pillory  and  ducking- 
stool  were  not  unfamiliar  objects.  Cutting  the  ears  was  some- 
times resorted  to,  as  in  the  case  of  the  faithless  clerk  of  the 
Virginia  Assembly  (§  92). 

228.  Society. — The  planters  were  the  ruling  class  socially 
as  well  as  politically.     They  comprised  two  divisions,  the  large 

i  The  little  son  of  the  planter  might  often  be  seen  in  the  cabin  "  quarters  "  seated 
upon  the  knee  of  a  gray-haired  negro  and  listening  with  wonder  and  delight  to 
the  old  "uncle's  "  tales  of  "  Bre:r  Rabbit  "  and  "  Bre'r  Fox"  ;  when  bed-time  found 
"  little  massa  "  thus,  he  was  tenderly  carried  home  in  the  arms  of  his  black  "  mammy," 
as  his  nurse  was  called. 


138  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

land-holders  and  the  small  planters.  Separated  from  the 
planters  by  a  broad  social  gulf  was  the  comparatively  small 
class  of  merchant-traders  and  landless  laborers.  At  the  bot- 
tom of  the  social  scale,  and  cut  off  from  the  rest  by  an  impassa- 
ble barrier,  was  the  great  mass  of  negro  slaves.  The  large 
planters,  with  their  hundreds  of  acres  and  scores  of  slaves,  gave 
an  aristocratic  air  to  southern  life.  One  of  these  estates  re- 
sembled a  small  village.  In  the  center  of  a  grassy  lawn,  dotted 
with  stately  trees,  stood  the  mansion  of  the  planter,  built  of 


wood  or  brick,  two  stories  high,  with  its  broad  veranda  sup- 
ported by  lofty  pillars,  its  wide  hallway,  and  low  ceilings. 
Clustered  around  the  mansion  were  numerous  offices  and  store- 
houses, while  a  row  of  cabins,  comprising  the  "  negro-quarters," 
nestled  in  the  distance.1  The  small  planters  lived  in  less 
style,  and  had  fewer  slaves.  Bountiful  hospitality  charac- 
terized the  people.  There  was  usually  one  miserable  tavern 
at  each  county-seat,  but  this  was  chiefly  a  resort  for  loafing 
and  drinking.  Only  when  court  was  in  session  did  it  have 

1  In  the  Southern  colonies  the  law  of  entail  provided  that  estates  could  not  be 
divided,  but  were  to  be  handed  down  to  the  eldest  son. 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  139 

any  guests.  "  Court-days "  were  eagerly  welcomed  by  the 
people  as  a  release  from  their  isolated  life.  Then  the  deserted 
county-seat  became  a  scene  of  bustle  and  confusion.  The  free- 
men of  the  county,  rich  and  poor,  there  met  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing, cracked  jokes,  talked  politics,  engaged  in  athletic  sports, 
"  swapped  "  horses,  or  bet  on  the  speed  of  a  favorite  nag,  In 
fine  weather  barbecues  were  common,  when  whole  oxen  and 
pigs  were  roasted,  and  contests  in  fiddling,  wrestling,  and  danc- 
ing were  held.  Once  a  year,  when  the  Assembly  met,  the  colo- 
nial capital  was  a  gay  social  center.  Then  the  planter  and  his 
wife  and  daughters,  arrayed  in  their  finest  clothes,  were  whirled 
away  in  their  coach-and-four  to  Annapolis,  Williamsburg,  or 
Charleston,  where  they  listened  to  the  speeches  in  the  hall  of 
burgesses,  visited  horse-races,  or  attended  a  grand  ball  at  the 
governor's  "  palace."  Marriages  were  performed  by  clergymen, 
usually  in  church.  In  Maryland  a  special  tax  was  imposed  upon 
bachelors.  In  Virginia  it  would  seem  that  the  modern  practice 
of  "  flirting  "  was  discouraged.  Governor  Wyat,  of  that  colony, 
required  that  any  man  or  woman  "  engaging  to  marry  two  sev- 
eral persons  at  one  time  "  should  be  punished  by  whipping  or 
a  fine,  "according  to  the  quality  of  the  person  so  offending." 

229.  Religion.  —  At  the  close  of  the  colonial  period  the 
Church  of  England  was  the  Established1  Church  in  all  the 
Southern  colonies,  although  in  Virginia  alone  did  its  members 
constitute  a  majority  of  the  white  population.  Among  dissent- 
ing sects,  the  most  numerous  and  influential  in  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina  were  the  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians ;  in  South 
Carolina,  Huguenots  ;  in  Maryland,  Roman  Catholics  and  Puri- 
tans; in  Georgia,  Lutherans,  Methodists,  and  Baptists.  Fining, 
imprisonment,  and  banishment  were  punishments  sometimes 
inflicted  for  non-conformity  to  the  Established  Church.  Mary- 
land was  the  first  colony  to  establish  religious  toleration,  and 

1  That  is,  the  State  Church,  supported  by  the  government. 


140 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  followed  her  example.  The  first 
permanent  church  in  America  was  erected  at  Jamestown.  The 

,     governor  and  his  council, 

in  full  dress,  were  regular 
attendants,  and  occupied 
seats  of  honor.  Owing 
to  the  scattered  popula- 
tion, some  of  the  parishes 
extended  over  fifty  miles, 
rendering  regular  attend- 
ance upon  church  im- 
possible. The  ministers 
were  brought  from  Eng- 
land, and  included  many 
men  of  high  character 
and  mental  ability,  such 
as  Rev.  Jas.  Blair,  the 
founder  of  William  and 
Mary  College.  In  later 

Old   Brick  Church,  near  Smithfield,  Va.,  .        .    ,       . 

Erected  in    ,632.  COl°mal    tlmCS'    *«"«*», 

the  fast  lives  of  some  of 

the  English  clergy,  their  quarrels  over  questions  of  salary,  and 
the  suspicion  of  disloyalty  to  the  colonies  lessened  the  in- 
fluence of  the  ministry  as  a  class. 

230.  Education.  —  The  sparsely  settled  character  of  the 
country  in  the  South  made  it  difficult  to  establish  schools. 
Governor  Berkeley's  oft-quoted  remark  that  he  "thanked  God 
there  were  no  free  schools  nor •  printing-presses  in  Virginia" 
was  not  the  sentiment  of  the  colonists,  but  indicated  the  policy 
of  the  English  governors,  who  would  have  their  subjects 
ignorant  in  order  to  keep  them  submissive.  Yet  the  bigotry 
of  the  rulers  had  its  effect  in  encouraging  indifference  to 
popular  education.  Schools  in  the  South  were  few.  The 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES. 


141 


wealthy  planters  employed  private  tutors,  or  sent  their  sons  to 
England  to  be  educated.  Yet  the  founding  of  William  and 
Mary  College  in  Virginia  in  1693,  the  second  oldest  college  in 
the  United  States,  shows  the  early  interest  of  the  people  in 
education.  Through  the  efforts  of  Rev.  Jas.  Blair  ^"2500 
were  subscribed  by  the  colonists  for  founding  a  college.  The 
Assembly  approved  the  plan,  and  against  official  resistance  in 
England  a  charter  was  secured  from  the  sovereigns,  William 


William  and   Mary  College  in   1739. 

and  Mary,  after  whom  the  institution  was  named.  The  first 
commencement  of  the  college  was  a  grand  occasion.  Not 
only  Virginians  but  a  number  of  Indians  were  present,  while 
visitors  from  Maryland  and  even  from  Pennsylvania  and  New 
York  came  in  boats  to  attend  the  exercises. 

231.  Literature.  —  Printing  was  forbidden  in  Virginia  by 
the  English  government,  and  was  discouraged  in  all  the 
colonies  directly  under  the  Crown.  The  first  newspaper  in 
the  South  was  the  Maryland  Gazette,  which  appeared  at 
Annapolis  in  1727.  In  1765  there  were  ten  newspapers  in 
the  Southern  colonies  ;  two  in  Maryland,  one  in  Virginia,  two 


142  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

in  North  Carolina,  four  in  South  Carolina,  and  one  in  Georgia. 
(In  the  same  year  the  Middle  colonies  had  thirteen  news- 
papers, New  England  twenty.)  The  books  of  the  colonists, 
like  their  furniture,  were  imported  from  England.  The  pro- 
ductions of  native  authors  were  generally  narrative  or  descrip- 
tive, and  possessed  no  permanent  literary  value.  Compared 
with  the  writings  of  New  England,  the  literature  of  the  South 
was  less  abundant  and  was  characterized  by  lightness  and 
worldliness  rather  than  by  theological  soberness. 

232.  Summary.  —  In  the  Southern  colonies,  as  a  whole,  loyalty  to  the 
king  and  to  the  Established  Church  characterized  the  dominant  class  of 
settlers.  The  circumstances  of  their  new  homes  made  them  an  agricultural 
people  and  fastened  upon  them  the  institution  of  slavery.  These  facts 
will  account  for  the  distinctive  features  of  colonial  civilization  in  the 
South.  There  was  no  diversity  of  labor.  The  planters  constituted  the 
bulk  of  the  population  and  were  the  leaders  in  society  and  politics.  The 
"  poor  whites,"  descendants,  for  the  most  part,  of  indented  servants,  were 
ignorant  and  shiftless.  They  were  few  in  number,  however,  and  without 
standing  or  influence.  The  slaves  constituted  nearly  half  the  population, 
and  as  a  rule  were  humanely  treated.  The  isolated  homes  of  the  colonists 
and  the  bigotry  of  their  rulers  hindered  the  progress  of  popular  education. 
Nevertheless  there  were  occasional  free  schools,  and  Virginia  boasted  the 
second  oldest  college  in  the  country.  While  instances  of  religious  persecu- 
tion were  not  wanting,  yet  intolerance  was  not  a  characteristic  of  the  people. 
Loyal  churchmen  as  they  were,  they  were  quick  to  resent  any  infringe- 
ment of  their  rights  by  king  or  clergy.  Jovial,  hospitable,  and  sociable, 
their  manner  of  life  encouraged  extravagance  and  love  of  ease.  Gambling 
and  intemperance  were  prevailing  vices.  Open-hearted  generosity,  refine- 
ment of  feeling,  patriotism,  and  a  high  sense  of  honor  were  characteristics 
of  the  better  class.  When  the  Revolutionary  struggle  came  on,  no  section 
of  the  country  furnished  so  splendid  a  group  of  leaders  in  the  council  and 
the  field. 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES. 


143 


THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES. 

233.  Nationality  and  Occupation  of  the  People.  —  New 
York  and  Delaware  alone  of  the  thirteen  colonies  were  not 
founded  by  the  English  race.  The  population  of  the  Middle 
colonies  as  a  whole  was  more  heterogeneous  than  that  of 
either  New  England  or  the  South. 
The  descendants  of  the  Dutch 
continued  to  constitute  a  majority 
of  the  white  population  of  New 
York,  and  gave  a  distinctive  char- 
acter to  the  colony.  The  Germans 
in  Pennsylvania  nearly  equaled  in 
number  the  colonists  of  English 
descent.  Agriculture  and  trade  in 
nearly  equal  proportions  engaged 
the  attention  of  the  people.  Grain 
was  the  principal  production,  al- 
though there  was  a  considerable 

diversity  of   crops.     Numerous  windmills  in   New  York  and 
watermills  in  Pennsylvania  ground  the  wheat  into  flour,  which 


formed  the  leading  export.  New  York  was  the  chief  trading 
and  commercial  colony.  The  fur-trade  was  most  extensive  and 
profitable.  There  were  glass  and  paper  factories,  and  in 


144  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Pennsylvania  the  iron  industry  received  some  attention.  In 
Pennsylvania  the  professions  of  law  and  medicine  were  in 
good  repute. 

234.  Religion. —  Religious  toleration  was  a  marked  charac- 
teristic of  the  Middle  colonies.    New  York  formed  an  exception 
to  this  in  her  treatment  of  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Quakers. 
Her  hatred  of  the  Catholics  was  largely  due  to  constant  war- 
fare with  the  Roman  Catholic  French  of  Canada.-    The  Quak- 
ers, true  to  their  teachings,  established  a  religious  toleration  as 
complete  as  that  of  to-day,  and  Pennsylvania  became  a  refuge 
for  a  great  variety  of  religious  denominations.     The  ministers 
in  the  Middle  colonies  were  generally  upright  and  learned  men. 
Those  of  New  York  were  jovial  in  their  lives  and  free  from 
great  formality.     The   predominant   sects   were    Dutch    Prot- 
estants in   New  York ;    Quakers  in   Pennsylvania  and  Dela- 
ware ;  Quakers,  Congregationalists,  and  Scotch  Presbyterians 
in  New  Jersey. 

235.  Education. —  Numerous  free  schools  were  supported  in 
New  York  by  the  Dutch.     Under  English  rule,  however,  popu- 
lar education  in  the  colony  languished.     The  only  free  school 
in  Pennsylvania  was  founded  by  the  Quakers  at  Philadelphia 
in  1689.     There  were  a  few  private  schools  in  Pennsylvania 
supported  chiefly  by  the  Moravians,  and  a  few  free  town-schools 
in   New  Jersey.      In   1746   the   Presbyterians  of  New  Jersey 
founded  the  first  college  in  the  Middle  colonies  (now  Princeton 
College).     Kings  (now  Columbia),  an  Episcopal  college,  was 
established  at  New  York  in   1754.     The  next  year  the  College 
of   Pennsylvania  was  founded  at  Philadelphia.      Among  the 
lower  classes  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  there  was  much 
ignorant  superstition  about  ghosts,  witches,  spells  and  charms. 

236.  Government.  —  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware  continued 
under  proprietary  government  until  the  Revolution,  while  New 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES.  145 

York  and  New  Jersey  came  directly  under  the  rule  of  the 
Crown.  In  the  first  two  colonies  the  Council  was  merely  an 
advisory  body  to  the  governor,  and  so  the  Legislature  was  com- 
posed of  only  one  house,  the  Assembly.  In  their  local  govern- 
ment the  Middle  colonies  occupied  a  position  between  the 
"town"  system  of  New  England  and  the  county  system  of  the 
South.  In  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  county  government 
prevailed,  with  the  distinctive  feature  that  all  county  officers 
were  elected  by  the  people.1  New  York  and  New  Jersey  had 
county  government,  and  also  "town  meetings,"  the  latter,  how- 
ever, with  less  ample  powers  than  those  of  New  England.  The 
Quakers  were  mild  in  their  punishment  of  crime.  Pennsylvania 
made  murder  the  only  capital  offense,  and  criminals  were  pun- 
ished with  fines  and  light  imprisonment.  In  1718  this  mild 
system  was  abandoned.  The  whipping-post  and  pillory  were 
introduced,  and  the  number  of  capital  offenses  was  increased 
to  fourteen.  In  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  negro  murderers 
were  burned  at  the  stake. 

237.  Social  Classes.  —  In  the  Dutch  patroons  New  York 
possessed  a  more  distinctly  aristocratic  class  than  any  of  the 
other  colonies.  These  great  landed  proprietors  on  their  vast 
estates,  with  their  hundreds  of  tenants,  multitudes  of  servants, 
and  princely  power  lived  in  magnificent  style.  There  were 
single  estates  that  elected  members  of  the  Assembly,  and  these 
elections  were  controlled  by  the  patroons.  In  the  other  Middle 
colonies  the  wealthy  landed  gentry  constituted  the  highest 
class,  but  there  were  few  large  estates.  There  were  many 
indented  servants  and  a  considerable  number  of  slaves.2  With 

1  The  Pennsylvania  system  of  county  government  exists  in  most  states  to-day. 

2  In  New  York  there  was  a  deep  antipathy  to  the  negroes,  which  showed  itself  on 
two  occasions  in  a  craze  of  excitement  not  unlike  the  witchcraft  frenzy  of  Massachu- 
setts.   In  the  "negro  plot"  of  1741  the  blacks  were  accused  of  plotting  to  burn  the 
city  of  New  York.     Before  the  panic  was  over  13  of  the  unfortunate  creatures  were 
burned  at  the  stake,  18  were  hanged,  and  17  transported,  in  accordance  with  the 
judgment  of  the  court. 


i46 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


the  exception  of  New  York,  social  distinctions  were  less  marked 
in  the  Middle  colonies  than  in  New  England  or  the  South. 

238.  Social  Life.  —  Social  life  and  customs  were  largely 
moulded  by  the  Dutch  in  New  York,  and  by  the  Quakers  in 
the  remaining  Middle  colonies.  In  New  York  the  lords  of  the 
manor  dressed  in  silks  and  velvets,  and  lived  in  large,  hand- 


Dutch  Manor  House.1 

somely  furnished  houses  of  brick  or  stone.  They  had  great 
barns,  and  an  abundance  of  horses  and  cattle.  They  generally 
spent  their  winters  in  the  town  of  New  York,  returning  to  their 
country-seats  in  the  spring.  The  houses  of  the  moderate  farm- 
ers were  of  wood,  sometimes  trimmed  with  yellow  Holland  brick, 
and  surmounted  with  a  gilded  weather-cock.  The  furniture 
was  plain  and  solid.  The  sideboards  were  plentifully  supplied 
with  wine  and  decorated  with  a  rack  of  tobacco-pipes,  for  the 
Dutch  were  great  smokers.  Both  sexes  dressed  in  homespun. 

l  From  "  Memorial  History  of  New  York." 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES. 


147 


The  loose,  "baggy"  breeches  of  the  men  and  the  numerous 

petticoats  of  the  women  gave  them  a  clumsy  appearance.    The 

Dutch  women  were  notable  housewives.     Their 

houses  were  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  their 

floors    were    regularly    scrubbed    and    sanded. 

Carpets  were  not  used.     The  people  were  fond 

of  social  pleasure,  and  had  a  great  liking  for 

holidays.       Christmas    and    New    Year's    were 

great   festivals.     St.   Valentine's    Day,    Easter, 

and    May    Day   were    also    celebrated   by   the 

young  people. 

The  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jer- 
sey were  the  best  farmers  of  their  time,  thrifty, 
temperate,  and  economical.  In  the  older  settled 
communities  the  houses  were  generally  of  brick, 
plastered  and  papered,  and  plainly  furnished.  Burgomaster  of 
Leather  breeches,  hempen  jackets,  and  broad 
hats  were  worn  by  the  farmers  on  work-days.  House-raisings, 
huskings,  and  cider-pressings  were  occasions 
of  social  gatherings,  but  the  ordinary  daily 
life  of  the  Quakers  was  sober  arid  monotonous. 
Journeys  were  made  on  horseback.  The 
bride  rode  to  the  wedding  seated  on  a  "pil- 
lion "  behind  her  father,  and  returned  in  the 
same  way  behind  her  husband.  In  New 
Jersey  a  cow  and  a  side  saddle  constituted  a 
usual  dower  of  the  average  farmer's  daughter. 
Philadelphia  and  New  York  were  the  social 
centers  of  the  Middle  colonies  ;  in  the  lattev 
place,  especially,  society  was  gay  and  fashion- 
able. 

Quaker. 

239.  Summary.  —  In  their  social  and  political  institutions,  as  in  their 
geographical  situation,  the  Middle  colonies  occupy  a  middle  ground  between 
the  New  England  and  the  Southern  groups.  Neither  trade  nor  agriculture 


148  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

engrossed  the  exclusive  attention  of  the  people.  Their  local  government 
was  a  compromise  between  the  "  town  "  and  county  systems.  Slaves  were 
more  numerous  than  in  New  England,  but  far  less  abundant  than  in  the 
South.  The  Middle  colonies  possessed  the  largest  foreign  population 
As  a  rule  social  distinctions  were  less  marked  than  in  either  of  the  other 
sections.  In  the  Quaker  colonies  neither  the  religious  persecution  of 
the  New  England  Puritans  nor  the  intolerance  of  the  Virginia  Churchmen 
existed.  Both  the  Dutch  and  the  Quakers  were  slow  in  thought  and  action. 
In  the  Revolution  they  furnished  a  conservative  class  that  formed  a  valu- 
able element  of  strength  in  the  struggle. 

240.  Thought  Questions.  —  Whence  did  the  colonists  borrow  the  idea  of 
having  two  branches  in  their  colonial  Legislatures?  What  points  do  you 
see  to  admire  in  the  town  system  of  local  government  in  New  England  ? 
In  the  county  system  of  the  South  ?  How  did  the  methods  of  church  govern- 
ment of  the  settlers  of  Massachusetts  and  of  Virginia  influence  their  local 
civil  government  ?  Contrast  the  soil  and  climate  of  Massachusetts  and  of 
Virginia.  How  did  these  differences  affect  the  occupations  of  the  settlers 
in  New  England  and  the  South  ?  their  local  government  ?  the  institution 
of  slavery  ?  If  the  New  England  Puritans  had  settled  in  Virginia,  and  the 
Virginia  Royalists  had  settled  in  New  England,  would  the  distinctive 
features  of  colonial  life  in  the  two  sections  have  been  different  from  what 
they  really  were  ?  Was  the  difference  in  the  life  of  the  colonists  due 
chiefly  to  local  surroundings  in  America,  or  to  the  character  and  religion 
of  the  settlers,  or.  to  both  ?  Are  the  differences  between  the  sections  of 
our  country  to-day  more  or  less  marked  than  they  were  in  colonial  times  ? 
Give  the  reason  for  your  answer.  What  causes  to-day  tend  to  give 
uniformity  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States?  What  causes  tend  to  difference?  In  what  particular 
have  we  made  the  greatest  improvement  since  colonial  times  ? 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (LIFE  IN  THE  COLONIES). 

206.  Introductory :  Close  of  an  Era. 

207.  Territorial   f  Formation  of  colonies. 


GENERAL  VIEW 

OF  THE 
COLONIES. 


Limits 


Situation  of  settlements. 
Region  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
c  Growth. 


208.  Population.       T^al  population  in  1760. 
1   The  different  colonies. 
I   Towns  and  cities. 


LIFE   IN   THE   COLONIES. 


149 


GENERAL  VIEW 

OF  THE 
COLONIES 

(contimted). 


NEW  ENGLAND 
COLONIES. 


{The  slave  trade. 
The  Northern  colonies. 
The  Southern  colonies. 
f  Republican  colonies. 

210.  Government.-]   Proprietary  colonies. 

[  Royal  colonies. 

C  Differences. 

211.  Colonies  Classified.  *{   Resemblance. 

l_  Three  groups. 

f  Farming. 

212.  Occupations  of  the  I  SSSui 

<    Shipbuilding. 
People. 

Commerce. 

[  Handicrafts. 
C  Origin. 

213.  Towns.  ^   Limits. 

(_  Government. 
f  Puritan  church. 

Intolerance. 

214.  Religion.  <   ...  . 

j   Ministers. 

t  Church  services. 

f  Duration. 

215.  The  Sabbath.  J   _. 

^  Observance. 

f  Capital  offenses. 

216.  Laws.  «  ,.,    ,        ,        .  . 

^  Modes  of  punishment. 

r  Basis. 

217.  Grades  of  Society.  •<  Classes. 

[  Distinctions. 

f  Of  the  men. 

4  _,  , 

^  Of  the  women. 

f  Social  pleasures. 
219.  Social  Life.  <    Holidays. 

[  Marriages  and  funerals. 
f  Schools. 


218.  Dress. 


220.  Education. 


\  Colleges. 
r  First  printing  press. 


First  newspaper. 
221.  Literature.  4    . 

Almanacs. 


L  Character  of  literature. 


150 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


SOUTHERN 
COLONIES. 


_  (  Inducements  to  agriculture. 

223.  Occupations.  <  „,  ,  . 

(  Other  occupations. 

f  In  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

224.  Principal  Crops.  <j    In  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 

[  In  Maryland. 
f  The  planter  his  own  merchant. 

225.  Absence  of  j   County  seats. 

Towns,      j   "  Paper  towns." 

I  Principal  towns  in  the  South. 
C  Profitableness. 

i    Number  of  slaves. 

226.  Slavery.  <   ,,T. .    _  , ,, 

j    Whiteneld  s  argument. 

I  Relation  between  master  and  slave. 
Royal  colonies. 
Influence  of  land-owners. 

227.  Government.  \  The  county. 

Trial  of  offenses. 
[_  Modes  of  punishment. 
Large  planters. 
Small  planters. 
Traders  and  laborers. 

228.  Society.  •{   Slaves. 

Court  days. 
The  colonial  capitals. 
Marriages. 
r  The  Established  Church. 

_.  ,.  Dissenting  sects. 

229.  Religion.  -(  T 

j    Intolerance. 

I  Clergymen. 

Scarcity  of  schools. 
William  and  Mary  College. 
Prohibition  of  printing. 
231.  Literature.  ^   Books. 

Character  of  literature. 


230.  Education. 


MIDDLE 
COLONIES. 


233.  Nationality  and 
Occupations. 


Mixed  population. 
Principal  occupations. 
Principal  productions. 
Leading  export. 
Other  occupations. 


LIFE    IN    THE    COLONIES. 


MIDDLE 
COLONIES    < 

(continued) . 


Toleration. 

,    Intolerance  in  New  York. 
234.  Religion.  <   .,,  . 

I    Ministers. 

I  Leading  denominations. 
Schools  and  colleges. 
Superstitions. 

Pennsylvania  and  Delaware. 
New  York  and  New  Jersey. 
Local  government. 
Punishment  of  crime. 
(  Patroons  of  New  York. 
237.  Social  Classes.  <   Land-owners  of  other  colonies. 

[  Social  distinctions. 
The  Dutch  of  New  York. 
The  Quakers  of  Pa.  and  New  Jersey. 


235.  Education. 


236.  Government. 


238.  Social  Life. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF   THE  UNITED   STATES. 


I.    WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION. 

I.   Causes  leading  to  the  War,  1760-74. 
II.   Beginnings  of  the  War,  April,  1775-Juty.  1776- 

1.  In  Massachusetts.          |  Washington  appointed  Commander-in- 

2.  In  Canada.  f     chief    Declaration  of  independence. 

3.  On  the  Carolina  Coast.  J 

III.  Struggle  for  the  Middle  States,  July,  1776-July,  1778. 

1.  Campaigns  around  New  York  City.^j 

2.  Campaigns  in  northern  New  York.      >  Treaty  with  France. 

3.  Campaigns  around  Philadelphia.        J 

IV.  War  beyond  the  Frontiers,  1778-9. 

1.  West  of  the  Alleghanies. 

2.  On  the  Ocean. 

V.   War  in  the  South,  1778-81. 

1.  In  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas.  )  Arnold's  Treason. 

2.  In  Virginia.  )  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Great  Britain. 


I.    CAUSES  LEADING  TO  THE  REVOLUTION. 

241.  Old  Grievances.  —  As  a  rule,  the  English  kings  were 
careless  of  the  rights  of  their  American  subjects.  America 
was  valued  chiefly  as  a  means  to  pay  royal  debts  by  grants 
of  territory,  or  to  reward  court  favorites  by  appointments  to 
colonial  offices.  The  royal  governors  frequently  lacked  both 
character  and  ability,  and  often  provoked  the  people  to  resist- 
ance. When  the  tvranny  of  Governor  Nicholson  became  un- 
bearable to  the  Virginians,  the  king  at  last  graciously  consented 
to  transfer  him  to  another  colony,  and  he  became  in  turn  gov- 
ernor of  Maryland  and  of  Carolina.  Every  colony,  except  Penn- 
sylvania and  Delaware,  was  at  some  period  in  its  history  the 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  1 53 

victim  of  incompetent  governors.  But  the  victories  won  by 
English  and  colonial  troops  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  had 
caused  old  grievances  to  be  forgotten  and  good  feeling  to  pre- 
vail between  the  colonies  and  the  mother-country.  It  was  the 
course  of  the  king  and  Parliament  subsequent  to  1760,  in 
attempting  to  enforce  certain  old  laws  and  in  passing  new  ones 
distasteful  to  the  colonists,  that  hurried  on  the  Revolution. 

242.  Laws  of  Trade  and  Navigation.  —  It  was  commonly 
believed  in   England   that  British  traders  and  manufacturers 
should  not  only  be  protected  from  competition  in  the  colonies, 
but  that  they  should  derive  an  actual  profit  from  colonial  trade. 
To  this  end,  more  than  one  hundred  years  before  the  Revolu- 
tion, Parliament  had  begun  to  pass  laws  to  regulate  shipping, 
trade,  and  manufactures  in  the  colonies.     These  laws  provided 
among  other  things  (i)  that  no  foreign  vessel,  except  British, 
should  carry  goods  to  or  bring  them  from  the  colonies  ;  (2)  that 
certain  colonial  products,  such  as  tobacco,  sugar,  and  cotton, 
should  not  be  exported  to  any  part  of  the  world  save  to  Great 
Britain  or  her  colonies ;  (3)  that  all  European  products  needed 
by  the  colonists  should  be  purchased  in  England  and  imported 
in  English  ships ;   (4)  that  no  articles  made  in  England  should 
be  manufactured  in  the  colonies.     The  object  of  these  laws 
was  partly  to  injure  England's  rivals  (especially  the  Dutch,  who 
at  that  time  did  most  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world),  but 
chiefly  to  enrich  British  merchants  and  manufacturers  at  the 
expense  of  the  American  colonists. 

243.  The  Laws  Evaded. — The  disastrous  effect  of  such 
laws  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  colonies,  if  strictly  enforced, 
can  be  readily  imagined.     For  nearly  one  hundred  years  the 
colonists  ignored  or  evaded  them.     The  numerous  harbors  on 
the  American  coast  made  it  easy  for  smugglers l  to  avoid  the 

1  To  smuggle  goods  is  to  import  them  without  paying  the  import  tax  required  by 
law. 


1 54  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

king's  officers.  When  offenders  were  arrested  sympathizing 
juries  refused  to  convict  them,  and  even  the  judges  appointed 
by  the  king  were  disposed  to  be  lenient,  remembering  that  their 
salaries  depended  upon  the  vote  of  colonial  Assemblies.  The 
pressure  of  the  French  wars  prevented  the  British  government 
from  turning  its  attention  to  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 

244.  Efforts  to  Enforce  the  Navigation  Laws. — When  the 
French  power  in  America  was  overthrown,  England  was  free  to 
enforce  her  hated  navigation  laws.  Colonial  juries  having  re- 
fused to  punish  smugglers, 
"  Admiralty  Courts "  were 
established  in  the  colonies, 
with  authority  to  try  offend- 
ers without  juries.  A  still 
more  formidable  measure 
was  the  issuance  of  "writs  of 
assistance"  (1761).  These 
were  general  warrants  good 
for  an  indefinite  time,  author- 
izing officers  to  search  all 
suspected  places  at  any  hour 
of  the  day  for  goods  sup- 
posed to  have  been  imported 

contrary  to  law.  The  colonists,  believing  the  navigation 
laws  unjust,  were  ready  to  oppose  any  effective  measures 
for  enforcing  them.  Moreover,  it  was  held  that  these  new 
measures  were  violations  of  the  British  Constitution,  which  al- 
lowed to  every  citizen  the  right  of  trial  by  jury,  and  declared 
his  house  should  be  secure  against  unreasonable  search. 
James  Otis  resigned  his  position  as  advocate-general  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  avoid  supporting  the  writs.  The  Boston  merchants 
appealed  to  the  courts  to  declare  the  writs  illegal,  and  employed 
Otis  as  their  counsel.  The  case  was  decided  against  them,  yet 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  155 

the  powerful  arguments  of  Otis  exerted  a  wide  influence  in 
strengthening  the  opposition  of  the  people. 

245.  The  "  Parson's  Case."  —  While  the  admiralty  courts 
and  the  writs  of  assistance  were  causing  dissatisfaction  and 
resistance  in  the  commercial  colonies,  an  event  took  place  in 
Virginia  which  weakened  the  authority  of  the  king  in  that  loyal 
colony.  The  annual  salary  of  each  minister  of  the  Established 
Church  in  Virginia  was  fixed  by  law  at  16,000  pounds  of  tobacco, 
and  this  amount  was  raised  by  taxation.  One  year,  when  there 
was  a  failure  of  the  tobacco  crop,  the  Virginia  Assembly  passed 
a  law  allowing  the  salaries  of  ministers  to  be  paid  in  money  at 
the  rate  of  twopence  for  each 
pound  of  tobacco  due.  As 
this  sum  was  far  below  the 
market  value  of  tobacco  the 
clergy  objected,  and  appealed 
to  the  king.  The  result  was 
the  king  annulled  or  set  aside 
the  "two-penny  act"  of  the 
Assembly.  The  ministers 
thereupon  brought  suits  in 
their  respective  counties  to 
recover  the  difference  in  salary 

'  Patrick   Henry. 

due  them.  In  one  of  the  coun- 
ties Patrick  Henry,  an  obscure  young  lawyer,  was  chosen  to 
represent  the  tax-payers.  In  a  speech  of  surprising  boldness 
and  eloquence,  he  denounced  the  king  as  a  tyrant  for  setting 
aside  a  good  law,  and  declared  that  the  Assembly  of  Virginia 
"  was  the  only  authority  for  the  laws  of  the  colony."  His  words 
were  cheered  by  the  large  crowd  present,  and  the  jury  brought 
in  a  verdict  awarding  only  one  penny  to  the  clergymen.  In  all 
parts  of  Virginia,  Henry's  defiance  of  the  king  was  discussed, 
some  condemning  it  as  treason,  many  others  approving  it. 


I  56  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

246.  The  Colonies  to  be  Taxed.  —  The  expenses  of  the 
French  wars  had  brought  an  enormous  debt  upon  England. 
As  the  wars  had  been  waged  partly  in  the  interest  of  the  colo- 
nies, England  claimed  that  the  colonies  should  help  to  pay  the 
cost.     Accordingly,  the  British  Parliament  decided  to  go  a  step 
further  than  it  had  ever  gone  before ;  it  determined  to  raise  a 
revenue  from  the  colonies  by  taxation.     An  old  law,  placing  a 
duty  on  sugar  and  molasses,  was  revived,  and  the  Stamp  Act 
was  passed  (1765),  requiring  government  stamps  to  be  placed 
on  all  contracts,  notes,  and  legal  documents.     These  stamps 
were  to  be  sold  by  British  officials,  and  from  this  source  a  large 
revenue  was  expected. 

247.  Feeling  of  the  Americans.  —  The  proposed  taxation 
of  Americans  by  the  British  Parliament  awakened  a  greater 
storm  than  did  the  enforcement  of  the  navigation  laws.     Cen- 
turies before  this,  the  people  of  England  had  taken  away  from 
their  king  the  power  to  tax  them,  and  had  declared  that  in 
England  taxes  could  be  imposed  only  by  the  representatives 
elected  by  the  people.     In  accordance  with  this  principle,  the 
American  colonists  claimed  they  could  be  taxed  only  by  their 
colonial  Assemblies.     They  elected  no  representatives  to  Par- 
liament ;  that  body,  therefore,  had  no  right  to  tax  them.  More- 
over, inasmuch  as  their  territory,  when  first  discovered,  was  con- 
sidered to  belong  to  the  king,  and  as  they  had  obtained  their 
title  to  the  soil  from  the  king,  they  held  that  they  were  subject 
to  the  king  alone,  and  not  to  Parliament.     As  to  the  expenses 
of  the  French  wars,  the  colonists  held  that  they  had  already 
paid  their  share  in   the  soldiers  and  supplies  they  had  fur- 
nished. 

248.  The  British  Parliament. —  The  Parliament  which  pro- 
posed to  tax  the  American  colonists  did  not  truly  represent  the 
people  of  England.    In  the  United  States  to-day,  we  know  that 
members  of  Congress  are  elected  from  districts  of  nearly  equal 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  157 

population  ;  and  as  population  increases  much  more  rapidly  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  than  in  others,  we  rearrange  our  rep- 
resentative districts  every  ten  years  in  order  to  prevent  unfair- 
ness in  representation.  In  England,  however,  members  of 
Parliament  had  been  originally  elected  from  "  shires "  or 
"boroughs,"  as  such,  and  without  reference  to  population. 
At  the  time  of  George  III.  these  parliamentary  districts,  never 
regular,  had  not  been  changed  for  200  years.  As  a  conse- 
quence, cities  like  Manchester  and  Birmingham,  which  had 
sprung  up  in  recent  years,  had  no  representatives,  while  other 
districts,  whose  population  had  decreased  to  hardly  a  dozen 
inhabitants,  were  yet  allowed  to  choose  members  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  votes  in  these  "  rotten  boroughs  "  were  controlled 
by  the  king  and  a  few  wealthy  families.  The  people  of  the 
unrepresented  cities  had  begun  to  complain  of  their  unjust 
treatment,  and  they  sympathized  with  the  Americans  in  their 
cry  of  "no  taxation  without  representation." 

249.  Resistance  to  the  Stamp  Act.  —  News  of  the  passage 
of  the  Stamp  Act  reached  America  in  the  spring  of  1765. 
From  Virginia  came  the  first  response.  Her  Assembly  passed 
a  series  of  resolutions  introduced  by  the  great  orator,  Patrick 
Henry,  and  supported  by  his  matchless 
eloquence,  declaring  that  "  the  Assembly 
of  this  colony  have  the  only  and  sole  ex- 
clusive right  to  levy  taxes  upon  the  in- 
habitants." John  Ashe,  speaker  of  the 
North  Carolina  Assembly,  declared  to  the 
royal  governor  that  in  his  colony  the 
Stamp  Act  "would  be  resisted  to  blood," 
whereupon  the  governor  promptly  dis- 
solved the  Assembly.  The  Massachusetts 
Assembly  resolved  that  their  courts  should  recognize  unstamped 
documents,  and  sent  a  circular  to  the  other  colonies  recom- 


158  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

mending  that  a  congress  of  delegates  from  all  the  colonies  be 
held  in  New  York  to  consider  common  grievances.  In  some 
places  the  feeling  of  opposition  was  so  strong  that  mobs  were 
formed  and  deeds  of  cruelty  and  lawlessness  enacted.1  Every- 
where stamp  agents  were  forced  to  resign,  and  the  stamps  were 
either  destroyed  or  sent  back  to  England. 

250.  The  Stamp  Act  Congress.  —  This  Congress,  proposed 
by  Massachusetts  and  seconded  by   South   Carolina,   met  in 
New  York  just  before  the  Stamp  Act  was  to  go  into  effect 
(October,  1765).     Twenty-eight  delegates  were  present,  repre- 
senting nine  colonies.  Four  colonies  were  unrepresented,  chiefly 
through  opposition  of  their  royal  governors  and  not  through 
lack   of   interest   in    the    cause.     Petitions   to   the    king   and 
Parliament 2  were  prepared  and  also  a  Declaration  of  Rights, 
asserting  that  the  colonies  should  be  free  from  all  taxes  not 
imposed  with  their  own  consent. 

251.  The  Stamp  Act  Repealed.  —  It  soon  became  evident 
to  the  British  ministry  that  to  enforce  the  Stamp  Act  an  army 
must  be  used,   and  they  were  unwilling  to  go  so  far.     The 
colonies,  moreover,  were  not  without  sympathizers  in  England. 
When  Parliament  met  in   1766,  a  petition  against  the  Stamp 
Act  was  presented  by  the   London   merchants   trading   with 
America.     William  Pitt,  now  old  and  suffering  with   disease, 
appeared  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  crutches,  and  fiercely 
opposed   the    policy  of   the   British   government.     "I    rejoice 
that  America  has  resisted,"  said  he.     "  If  her  people  had  sub- 
mitted,   they   would    have    voluntarily    become    slaves.       My 
opinion  is  that  the  Stamp  Act  should  be  repealed,  absolutely, 

1  In  Boston  the  home  of  Chief-Justice  Hutchison  was  burned  by  a  mob,  the  Justice 
and  his  family  barely  escaping.    In  New  York   a  torch-light  procession  dragged 
through  the  streets  the  governor's  chariot  bearing  images  of  the  governor  and  the 
devil,  and  finally  made  a  bonfire  of  the  chariot. 

2  Gadsden,  of  South  Carolina,  objected  to  sending  petitions  to  Parliament,  because 
thereby  its  authority  would  be  acknowledged. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  159 

totally,  immediately."  The  result  was  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp 
Act  before  it  had  been  in  operation  six  months.  At  the  same 
time  a  resolution  was  passed  declaring  that  Parliament  had  the 
right  to  tax  the  colonies  in  all  cases.  Thus  the  principle  of 
taxation  without  representation  was  still  maintained. 

252.  The   Townshend  Acts. — -The   next   year    two    laws 
known  as  the  Townshend  Acts  (from  their  author,   Charles 
Townshend)  were  passed.     The  first  provided  for  the  stricter 
execution  of  the  laws  of  trade  ;  the  second,  for  imposing  a  tax 
on  glass,  paper,  and  tea.     Again  bitter  opposition  was  aroused, 
especially   in    the    commercial    colonies.     The    Massachusetts 
Assembly  sent  a  circular  to  the  various  colonies  censuring  the 
recent  acts  of  the  British  government  in  reference  to  trade  and 
taxation.     The  king  ordered  the  Assembly,  under  penalty  of  | 
being  instantly  dissolved,  to  rescind  this  circular.     By  a  vote  I 
of  ninety-two  to  seventeen  the  Massachusetts  Assembly  refused  | 
to  obey,  thus  deliberately  defying  the  authority  of  the  king.  I 
The  Virginia  Assembly  the  next  year  endorsed  the   Massa- 
chusetts circular  and  sent  copies  of  her  resolutions  of  approval 
to  all  the  other  colonies. 

253.  The  Mutiny  Act  and  the  Boston  Massacre.  —  Several 
regiments  of  British  troops  were  stationed  in  New  York  and 
Boston  to  enforce  the  unpopular  laws.     By  the   Mutiny  Act 
of  1765  the  colonies  were  required  to  furnish  food  and  quarters 
for  the  soldiers.     The  New  York  Assembly  having  failed  to 
provide  fully  for  the  troops,  Parliament  suspended  its  powers 
of  legislation.     All  the  colonies  looked  upon  this  act  of  Parlia- 
ment as  a  serious  invasion  of  their  rights.     Boston  flatly  refus- 
ing to  provide  shelter  for  the  soldiers,  they  were  compelled  to 
rent    quarters    at   the    expense    of   the  Crown.      There  were 
frequent    quarrels    between    the    troops    and    the    populace. 
Finally  a  collision  occurred  in  which  a  squad  of  soldiers  fired 
upon  a  crowd  of  citizens,  killing  three  persons  and  wounding 


l6O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

several  others1  (1770).     This  affair,   known   as  the  "Boston 
Massacre,"  increased  the  excitement  all  over  the  country. 

254.  The  Battle  of  Alamance.  —  In  North  Carolina  exces- 
sive fees   had   been    collected   by   the   officers    of   the   royal 
governor,  and  the  taxes  had  been  squandered.     The  people  of 
the  western  counties  of  the  colony  organized  to  resist  the  pay- 
ment of  such  taxes  as  were  not  "  agreeable  to  law,  and  applied 
to  the  purposes   therein  mentioned."     In  1771,  at  Alamance, 
near  the  head-waters  of  the  Cape  Fear  River,  a  battle  took 
place  between  the  tax-payers  and  the  governor's  troops.     The 
rebels  were  beaten,  a  large  number  were  killed,  and  several  of 
the  captured  were  hanged  as  traitors.     This  was  the  first  blood 
shed  in  America  in  resistance  to  unjust  British  taxation. 

255.  The  Tax  on  Tea.  —  The  British  government  decided 
to  remove  all  taxes  save  that  on  tea.     The  tea  tax  was  retained 
to  show  the  colonists  that  the  right  to  tax  them  was  still  main- 
tained.    Thereupon  the  Americans  refused  to  buy  tea  shipped 
from  England,  and  either  drank  none  at  all,  or  smuggled  it 
from  Holland.     In  order  to  induce  them  to  use  this  taxed  tea, 
it  was  provided  that  on  all  tea  shipped  from  England  to  the 
colonies  the  owners  should  have  refunded  to  them  the  duty 
paid  when  first  imported  into  England  from  China.     By  this 
means  the  tea  could  be  sold  to  the  colonists,  with  the  American 
duty  added,  cheaper  than  it  could  be  purchased  elsewhere. 
But  the  colonists  refused  to  be  caught  in  the  king's  trap.     It 
was  not  the  payment  of  a  few  pence,   but  the  principle  of 
"taxation  without  representation"  that  they  opposed.     From 
Massachusetts  to  Georgia  the  people  showed  their  indignation. 
The  merchants  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Charleston,  to 
whom  the  first  shiploads  of  tea  under  the  act  were  consigned, 
agreed    not   to    receive    it.      As   the    Boston    tea    merchants 

1  The  soldiers  were  tried  for  murder.     Two  were  convicted  of  manslaughter,  the 
rest  were  acquitted. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  l6l 

refused  to  join  in  this  agreement,  the  eyes  of  the  whole 
country  were  turned  to  that  city  to  see  what  course  the  people 
would  take.  When  the  first  three  shiploads  of  tea  arrived  at 
that  port,  fifty  men  disguised  as  Indians  boarded  the  vessels, 
cut  open  the  chests  of  tea  and  emptied  them  into  the  harbor. 

256.    Punishment   of    Boston.  — -  The    British    government 
decided   that   severe   punishment   should    be    inflicted    upon 


Throwing  the  Tea  Overboard.      (An  old  Print.) 

Boston  and  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  for  the  destruction  of 
the  tea.  Parliament  at  once  passed  an  act  known  as  the 
Boston  Port  Bill,  by  which  no  ships  were  allowed  to  leave  or 
enter  the  port  of  Boston,  until  the  town  should  pay  for  the  tea 
destroyed.  This  put  a  stop  to  all  commerce,  and  threatened 
the  people  with  financial  ruin.  By  another  act,  the  charter  of 
Massachusetts  was  annulled,  the  appointment  of  nearly  all  the 


1 62  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

officers  was  vested  in  the  king,  and  the  most  important  powers 
of  the  town  meetings  were  taken  away. 

257.  First  Continental  Congress.1  —  From  all  the  colonies 
came  expressions  of  sympathy  for  the  people  of  Boston,  who 
were  regarded  as  sufferers  in  a  common  cause.     Georgia  and 
South  Carolina  sent  hundreds  of  barrels  of  rice  to  feed  the 
hungry  patriots.     The   Virginia  Assembly  set  apart  the  first 
day  of  June  (when  the  Boston  Port  Bill  was  to  go  into  effect) 
as  a  day  of  "fasting,  humiliation,  and  prayer."     For  this,  the 
governor  at  once  dissolved  the  Assembly,   but  the  members 
met  the  next  day  at  Raleigh  Tavern  and  proposed  a  general 
congress  of  the  colonies.     A  few  days  later,  but  before  the 
news   from   Virginia   had   reached   them,    the   Massachusetts 
Assembly   made    a   similar   proposition.     The  other  colonies 
accepted  the  invitation  of  Virginia  and  Massachusetts,  Georgia 
alone  being  prevented  from  doing  so  by  the  efforts  of  her 
royal  governor.     On   September  5,    1774,   the  delegates  met 
in    Philadelphia.     The    Congress  approved  the  resistance  of 
Massachusetts  to  the  despotic  acts  of  Parliament,  demanded  a 
repeal   of  the  laws   invading  their  rights,   and  recommended 
commercial    non-intercourse    with    Great   Britain.     They   also 
prepared  addresses  to  the  king  and  people  of  Great  Britain 
and  fixed  the  loth  day  of  May  following  for  a  second  congress. 

258.  Summary  of  Causes  of  Revolution.  —  In  their  gifts  of  territory 
as   well   as   in    their   appointments    of    colonial    governors,    the    British 
sovereigns  were  careless  of  the  welfare  of  their  American  subjects.     Parlia- 
ment considered  the  colonies  as  existing  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  com- 
merce and  manufactures  of  Great  Britain,  and  passed  navigation  laws  in 
accordance  with  this  idea.     For  years  these  laws  were  evaded,  but  at  the 
close  of  the  French  Wars,  England  determined  to  enforce  them  and  also 
to  tax  the  colonists.     The  Americans  declared  there  should  be  no  taxation 
without  representation.     Their  determined  resistance  to  the  Stamp  Act 

1  Called  "Continental"  Congress  to  distinguish  it  from  "Provincial"  Congress,  a 
name  applied  to  the  revolutionary  Legislatures  of  several  of  the  colonies. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  163 

caused  its  repeal,  but  other  taxes  Were  soon  afterward  imposed.  In  a 
quarrel  between  British  troops  and  citizens  of  Boston  the  troops  fired  into 
the  crowd,  killing  several  persons  (1770).  The  first  bloodshed  in  resistance 
to  unjust  taxation  occurred  at  Alamance,  North  Carolina,  1771.  Deter- 
mined not  to  pay  the  tax  on  tea,  colonial  merchants  refused  to  receive  it, 
and  at  Boston  three  shiploads  were  thrown  into  the  sea.  England  having 
taken  steps  to  punish  Boston,  all  the  colonies  showed  their  sympathy.  A 
congress  of  delegates  from  twelve  colonies  met  in  Philadelphia,  1774, 
approved  the  resistance  of  Massachusetts,  and  demanded  the  repeal  of  the 
unjust  laws. 

259.  Thought  Questions.  —  Show  how  each  of  the  following  causes 
influenced  the  separation  between  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country  : 
(i)  the   French  wars;  (2)   overthrow  of  the  French    power   in    America; 
(3)  conduct  of  the  king  of  England  ;  (4)  feeling  of  British  merchants  toward 
the  colonists  ;  (5)  action  of  Parliament  ;  (6)  course  of  royal  governors.     Is 
there  a  stamp  act  in  force  in  the  United  States  to-day?     Why  is  it  not 
resisted  ?     Why  were  the  writs  of  assistance  so  much  more  objectionable 
than  our  modern  search-warrants,   which   authorize  a  sheriff  to  enter  a 
citizen's  house  ?     What  excuse  had  the  British  government  for  taxing  the 
colonists  ?     How  might  Great  Britain  have  imposed  a  tax  with  the  consent 
of  the  Americans  ?     Why  was  she  not  willing  to  do  this  ?     What  English- 
men sympathized  with  the  Americans  in  their  resistance  ?     How  do  you 
suppose  the  owners  of  the  tea  regarded  the  destruction  of  their  property  by 
the  men  of  Boston?     What  was  the  justification  of  the  act  ?     What  colo- 
nies took  the  lead  in   resistance  to   the  British  government  ?     Name  the 
prominent  leaders  in  the  different  colonies. 

H.    BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  WAR. 

(April,  1775  -July,  1776.) 

260.  Lexington  and  Concord.  —  General   Gage,    who   was 
stationed  at  Boston  with  3,000  British  troops,  was  appointed 
by  the  king   governor  of   Massachusetts.     The   colonial  As- 
sembly met  in  defiance  of  the  new  governor's  proclamation, 
and  voted  to  equip  12,000  men  and  provide  supplies  for  them. 
General  Gage  fortified  Boston  Neck  and  seized  the  military 
stores  in  the  neighborhood.     Learning  that  the  colonists  had 
other  stores  at  Concord,  eighteen  miles  from  Boston,  he  sent 
eight  hundred  men  by  night  to  destroy  them,  ordering  them  to 


1 64 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


stop  at  Lexington  and  arrest  the  patriot  leaders,  Hancock  and 
Adams.  His  plan,  however,  was  discovered,  and  Paul  Revere, 
"all  booted  and  spurred,"  was  ready  to  spread  the  alarm. 

The  moment  the  British 
troops  started,  he  sprang 
into  his  saddle  and  dashed 
madly  through  the  neigh- 
boring villages  on  his 
famous  midnight  ride,  to 
arouse  the  people.  Thus 
warning  was  given,  and 
when  the  troops  reached 
Lexington  at  sunrise,  April  igth,  they  found  about  fifty  citizens 
drawn  up  on  the  village  green.  "  Disperse,  ye  villains! "  shouted 
Major  Pitcairn,  the  British  leader.  The  patriots  refused  to 


Lexington  Common  and   Meeting-House. 

obey,  and  a  skirmish  followed  in  which  the  Americans  were 
compelled  to  retreat  with  the  loss  of  eight  killed  and  several 
wounded.  By  the  time  the  British  reached  Concord,  most  of  the 


1 66 


HISTORV    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


stores  had  been  concealed.  They  hastily  destroyed  all  they 
could  find,  and  after  another  skirmish  at  Concord  Bridge,  began 
the  return  march  to  Boston.  The  whole  country  was  now  aroused. 
From  every  village  and  farm  militiamen  came  pouring  in  until 
the  roadside  fairly  swarmed  with  marksmen.  An  incessant 
and  deadly  fire  was  kept  up  upon  the  weary  British  troops. 
The  retreat  became  more  and  more  disorderly,  and  had  not 
reinforcements  come  out  from  Boston  to  meet  them,  it  is 
probable  that  the  whole  force  would  have  been  killed  or 
captured.  The  total  loss  of  the  British  was  two  hundred  and 
seventy-three ;  of  the  Americans,  ninety-three.  The  British 
had  not  gained  the  object  of  their  expedition,  while  their 
troops  had  barely  escaped  capture. 

261.  Effect  of  the  News ;  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration. — 

The  news  that  British  regulars  had  been  chased  by  American 
"  peasants  "  caused  great  mortification  in  England.  The  gov- 
ernment became  more  fixed  in 
its  determination  to  crush  the 
spirit  of  resistance  in  the  col- 
onies. In  America  the  news 
was  hailed  with  joy.  Every 
one  realized  that  war  had  be- 
gun. From  Connecticut,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island 
troops  hurried  to  join  the  men 
of  Massachusetts,  who  were 
besieging  the  British  in  Boston. 
The  important  forts  Ticonde- 
roga  and  Crown  Point,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  were  surprised  and 
captured  by  Vermont  companies.  The  Middle  and  Southern 
colonies  at  once  took  steps  to  organize  and  train  their  militia. 
A  party  of  Georgians  seized  the  royal  powder  magazine  at 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  IO/ 

Savannah,  and  sent  five  hundred  pounds  of  the  captured  powder 
to  the  patriots  at  Boston. 

The  citizens  of  Mecklenburg  County,  North  Carolina,  met  in 
the  month  of  May  and  adopted  the  famous  Mecklenburg  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  renouncing  the  authority  of  all  crown 
officers  in  America,  declaring  that  the  Continental  Congress 
and  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  colonies  possessed  all  the 
powers  of  government,  and  asserting  that  their  own  county  offi- 
cers should  act  independently  of  the  British  Crown.  This  was 
more  than  a  year  before  the  independence  of  the  united  colonies 
was  declared. 


262.  Bunker  Hill.  —  The  British  sent  fresh  troops  to  Bos- 
ton, until  their  forces  numbered  ten  thousand  men.  Sixteen 
thousand  New  England  militia  had 
gathered  just  outside  the  city.  In  order 
to  compel  the  British  to  leave,  the  colo- 
nists determined  to  fortify  Bunker  Hill  on 
Charlestown  peninsula,  an  eminence  over- 
looking Boston.  The  troops  sent  out  by 
night  to  execute  this  movement  fortified 
Breed's  Hill  instead,  because  nearer  the 
city.  When  the  British  awoke  and  saw 
the  breastworks  of  the  Americans  on  the 
hill  within  easy  cannon  shot,  they  realized 
they  must  either  abandon  the  city  or 
capture  the  threatening  fortifications. 
On  the  1 7th  of  June  the  British  troops 
crossed  over  to  Charlestown,  set  fire  to 
the  village  and  began  the  ascent  of  the 
coveted  hill.  The  colonists  watched  in 
silence  until  the  advancing  column  was  within  fifty  yards,  then 
opened  fire  with  such  deadly  effect  that  the  British  troops  broke 
and  fled  down  the  hill.  A  second  attempt  to  storm  the  breast- 


1 68  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

works  had  a  like  disastrous  result ;  a  third  assault  was  success- 
ful. The  ammunition  of  the  Americans  had  given  out,  and 
they  slowly  retreated  from  Charlestown  peninsula  with  a  loss 
of  about  four  hundred  and  fifty.  The  British  lost  over  one 
thousand  killed  and  wounded. 

263.  Second  Continental  Congress.  —  Three  weeks  after  the 
battle  of  Lexington  the  second  Continental  Congress  met  at 
Philadelphia.     John  Hancock,  of  Massachusetts,  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Congress,  to  succeed  Peyton  Randolph,  of 
Virginia,  who  had  been  called  home.     While  not  yet  ready  for 
independence,  Congress  determined  to  make  united  resistance 
to  British   oppression.     They  voted  to  raise  a    "continental 
army"  of  twenty  thousand,  whose  expenses  were  to  be  appor- 
tioned  to   the   several   colonies.      The    New  England  troops 
around  Boston  were  to  be  adopted  as  the  nucleus  of  the  army. 
One  of  the  most  important  acts  of  Congress  was  the  selection 
of  a  commander-in-chief.      George  Washington,  of  Virginia,  by 
his  skillful  management  of  the  colonial  troops  in  Braddock's 
disastrous  expedition  in  the  French  and  Indian  war,  and  by  the 
ability  he  displayed  in  the  subsequent  capture   of  Fort  Du- 
quesne,  had  become  the  most  prominent  American  soldier.    At 
the  suggestion  of  John  Adams,  he  was  unanimously  chosen  to 
command   the  American   forces  (June  19,  two  days  after  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill). 

264.  Washington  Takes  Command.  —  It  was  just  two  weeks 
after  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  that  Washington  reached  the 
vicinity  of  Boston,  and  took  command  of  the  patriot  army.  The 
men  were  undisciplined,  poorly  supplied  with  guns  and  ammu- 
nition, enlisted  for  short  periods  of  time,  and  dependent  for 
support  upon  their  various  local  authorities.    Besides  all  these 
difficulties,  the  commander-in-chief  had   no    organized  central 
government  to  rely  on.     Undaunted,  he  began  at  once  the  task 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  169 

of  organizing,  drilling,  and  equipping  the  troops.  Eight  months 
were  spent  by  Washington  in  this  work  and  in  strengthening 
the  fortifications  around 
Boston,  while  thoughtless 
critics  were  censuring  him 
for  his  apparent  inactivity. 

265.  Expedition  against 
Canada.  —  An    expedition 
against  Canada  was  decided 
upon    for  the    double   pur- 
pose of  preventing  an  attack 
from    that   quarter   and   of 
inducing  the  Canadians  to 
join   their  southern    neigh- 
bors   against    the    British. 

A    thousand    men    Under          Washington  Elm  (under  which  Washington 

Colonel    Benedict    Arnold 

left  Washington's  army,  and  advanced  by  way  of  the  Kennebec 
River  and  the  Maine  woods.  After  a  journey  of  frightful 
struggle  with  starvation,  cold,  and  fatigue,  they  were  joined 
by  a  force  under  General  Montgomery,  who  had  traveled  due 
north  from  Ticonderoga  by  the  Lake  Champlain  route.  Mon- 
treal was  captured  by  Montgomery,  and  the  combined  forces, 
now  numbering  hardly  twelve  hundred  men,  attacked  Quebec. 
Montgomery  was  killed  in  the  assault,  and  Arnold  was  desper- 
ately wounded.  Part  of  the  attacking  force  was  captured  ;  the 
rest  withdrew.  Soon  afterward  Montreal  was  re-taken  by 
the  British,  and  the  remnant  of  the  colonial  army  was  driven 
from  Canada.  Thus  ended  in  disastrous  failure  the  Canada 
expedition. 

266.  Evacuation  of  Boston.  —  Dorchester  Heights  overlook 
Boston  from  the  south,  and  command  the  city  even  more  effec- 
tually than  does  Bunker  Hill.     Having  at  last,  in  the  spring  of 


I/O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

1776,  received  some  cannon  heavy  enough  for  his  purpose, 
Washington  secretly  fortified  these  heights.  The  British,  re- 
membering the  lesson  of  Bunker  Hill,  refrained  from  attacking 
the  fortifications,  and  being  unable  to  hold  the  city  longer,  sailed 
away  to  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia  (March  17).  By  this  brilliant 
achievement  of  Washington,  many  valuable  military  stores  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  American  army,  and  New  England  was 
freed  from  British  troops  for  the  first  time  in  six  years. 

267.  The  King's  Authority  Overthrown;  Fighting  in  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina. — -One  by  one  the  royal  governors 
fled  from  the  country,  and  the  people  proceeded  to  choose  their 
successors  and  organize  governments  similar  to  the  state  gov- 
ernments of  to-day.     The  governors  of  Georgia  and  New  Jer- 
sey, having  failed  to  resign  their  offices,  were  arrested  and  kept 
under  guard.     Lord  Dunmore,  governor  of  Virginia,  seized  a 
quantity  of  powder  at  Williamsburg  and  tried  to  arm  the  slaves, 
promising  freedom  to  those  who  would  join  him.     His  force 
was  beaten   by  the  Virginians  near  Norfolk,  and  he   sought 
refuge  in  an  English  ship.     He  afterward  avenged  himself  by 
setting  fire  to  Norfolk.     In  North  Carolina  a  battle  occurred  at 
Moore's  Creek  (February  1776),  in  which  one  thousand  militia- 
men completely  routed  a  force  of  sixteen  hundred  Tories,  who 
were  on  their  way  to  the  coast  to  cooperate  with  an  expected 
British  fleet.    This  battle  aroused  the  Carolinians  as  Lexington 
did   the    New    Englanders.     Ten    thousand    men    quickly   as- 
sembled to  resist  the  landing  of  the  British. 

268.  Attack  on  the  Carolina  Coast.  —  The  British  were  led 
to  believe  that  with  the  aid  of  Tory  sympathizers  in  the  colony, 
North  Carolina  could  be  easily  conquered,  and  thus  the  South- 
ern colonies  could  be  cut  in  two.     Several  vessels  under  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  were  sent  from  Boston  to  the  North  Carolina 
coast,  where  they  were  to  cooperate  with  the  fleet  under  Ad- 
miral Parker,  which  had  sailed  from  Ireland.      Storms  delayed 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION. 


171 


Parker's  fleet,  and  the  bold  spirit  of  the  North  Carolina  patriots 
deterred  Clinton  from  attempting  a  landing  (§  267).  The 
combined  British  fleet  then  sailed  south  with  the  intention  of 
taking  Charleston,  the  largest  city  in  the  Sotrth.  The  Conti- 
nental Congress  sent  General  Charles  Lee  with  a  force  of  Vir- 
ginians and  North  Carolinians  to  relieve  the  town. 

269.  Battle  of  Fort  Moultrie.  —  On  an  island  just  outside 
Charleston  harbor,  Colonel  Moultrie  had  thrown  up  a  fortifica- 
tion of  palmetto  logs  (afterward  called  Fort  Moultrie).  The 
British  fleet  opened 
a  heavy  fire  upon 
this  fort  (June  28). 
Meanwhile  Clinton 
landed  some  troops 
on  the  east  end  of 
the  island,  so  as  to 
attack  the  fort  on 
land  and  sea  at  the 
same  time.  The 
fire  from  the  British 
guns  was  incessant, 
but  their  balls  either 
flew  above  the  low 
fortifications  or 
sank  harmlessly 
into  its  spongy  pal- 
metto walls.  The  Jasper  replacing  the  Rag  at  Fort  Mou|t;ie_ 
Americans  fired  less 

frequently,  but  their  well-aimed  shots  proved  so  destructive  to 
the  British  forces  that  they  withdrew  from  the  attack  with  a  loss 
of  life  six  times  as  great  as  that  of  their  opponents.1  After 

1  In  the  midst  of  the  battle,  the  flag  which  floated  over  the  smoking  guns  of  the 
fort  suddenly  disappeared  from  view.  A  British  shot  had  broken  the  flagstaff,  and 
it  fell  outside  the  walls.  While  the  balls  were  flying  thickest  a  brave  young  officer, 


HISTORY    OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 


spending   three    weeks   repairing  his  damaged    ships,  Parker 
sailed  away  to  New  York. 

270.  Independence  Declared.  —  In  the  early  spring  of 
1776,  soon  after  the  battle  of  Moore's  Creek,  North  Carolina 
authorized  her  delegates  in  Congress  to  concur  with  delegates 
from  other  colonies  in  declaring  independence.  In  May,  Massa- 
chusetts and  Virginia  separately  renounced  their  dependence 
on  Great  Britain.  At  the  same  time  Virginia  went  a  step  fur- 
ther and  instructed  her  delegates  to  propose  to  Congress  "  to 
declare  the  United  Colonies  free  and  independent  States."  In 

obedience  to  these  instruc- 
tions, on  the  8th  of  June 
Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Vir- 
ginia, moved  "that  these 
United  Colonies  are,  and  of 
right  ought  to  be,  free  and 
independent  States."  This 
motion  was  seconded  by  John 
Adams,  of  Massachusetts. 
After  warm  discussion  the 
question  was  postponed  until 
July  i,  in  order  that  express  in- 
structions might  be  obtained 
from  all  the  colonies.  By  that  time  every  colony  except  New 
York  had  approved  the  step  proposed,  and  on  July  4  Congress 
unanimously  adopted  a  formal  Declaration  of  Independence. 
The  delegates  from  New  York  refrained  from  voting ;  but  five 
days  later  New  York  formally  ratified  the  Declaration,  and  her 
delegates  then  signed  it.  The  news  of  the  adoption  of  the 
Declaration,  which  was  received  at  the  same  time  as  that  of 
the  brilliant  success  at  Fort  Moultrie,  created  the  wildest  joy 


The  Old  State  House,  Philadelphia,  in  which 

the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 

adopted  and  the  Constitution  of 

the  United  States  framed. 


Sergeant  Jasper,  sprang  over  the  defenses,  in  plain  view  of  the  enemy,  seized  the 
flag,  and  planted  it  again  on  the  walls  of  the  fort. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  1/3 

throughout  the  country.  Everywhere  there  were  torch-light 
processions,  ringing  of  bells,  firing  of  guns,  and  other  signs  of 
delight  and  approval. 

271.  The  Declaration.  —  The  Declaration  was  written  by 
Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  chairman  of  a  committee  of 
Congress,  of  which  John  Adams  and  Benjamin  Franklin  were 
members.  It  contains  among  other  statements  the  following  : 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,  and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and 
equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them, 
a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should 
declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  —  That  all  men  are  created 
equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable 
rights  ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 
That,  to  secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men,  deriv- 
ing their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed  ;  that,  whenever 
any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right 
of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a  new  government. 
.  .  .  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated 
injuries  and  usurpations.  ...  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a 
candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary 
for  the  public  good.  .  .  . 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with 
manly  firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people.  .  .  . 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  [Parliament] 
foreign  to  our  constitutions,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws;  giving  his 
assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us ;  ... 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world  ; 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent ; 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury;  .  .  . 

For  taking  away  our  charters  ;  .  .  . 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested 
with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever.  .  .  . 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burned  our  towns,  and 
destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people.  .  .  . 


174  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Our  British  brethren,  .  .  .  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and 
consanguinity.  We  must;  therefore,  .  .  .  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest 
of  mankind,  enemies  in  war,  in  peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  .  .  .  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  good 
people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  That  these  united 
Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states  ;  that 
they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all 
political  connection  between  them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and 
ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved.  .  .  .  And,  for  the  support  of  this  declaration, 
with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually 
pledge  to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 

272.  The  New  Government.  —  At  the  same  time  that  the 
committee  was  appointed  to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, another  committee  was  named  to  prepare  a  plan  of 
government.     Twelve  days  after  the  adoption  of  the  Declara- 
tion, this   second  committee  submitted  to  Congress  the  first 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  Articles  of  Con- 
federation and  Perpetual  Union  between  the  States."     It  was 
adopted  by  Congress  and  then  submitted  to  the  several  states 
for  their  ratification.     In   the  year   1779   all  the    states    had 
adopted  the  articles  save  Maryland,  and  Congress  proceeded 
to  exercise  the  powers  thereby  conferred.     (See  §  328.) 

273.  Summary  of  Beginnings  of  the  War.  —  The  war  began  in  Massa- 
chusetts with  the  fight  at  Lexington  (April  19,  1775),  followed  a  month 
later  by  that  of  Bunker  Hill,  both  of  which  had  the  effect  of  victories  for 
the  Americans.     The  second  Continental  Congress  determined  upon  united 
resistance,  and  appointed  Washington  commander-in-chief  of   the  Conti- 
nental army.     In  the  spring  of  1776  Washington  compelled  the  British  to 
evacuate   Boston.     An    expedition  against    Canada  ended   in  failure.     A 
party  of  militia  gained  a  victory  at  Moore's  Creek,  North  Carolina,  over  a 
large  force  of  Tories.     A  British  attack  on  Fort  Moultrie,  South  Caro- 
lina, was  defeated.     On  July  4,  1776,  Congress  declared  the  independence 
of  the  colonies,  and  steps  were  taken  to  form  a  new  government. 

274.  Thought  Questions.  —  How  did  it  happen  that  the  war  began  in 
Massachusetts  rather  than  in  some  other  colony  ?     Why  did  not  the  battle 
of  Alamance  have  such  an  immediate  and  widespread  effect  as  the  battle 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  1/5 

of  Lexington  ?  Give  instances  of  resistance  to  British  tyranny  in  North 
Carolina  ;  in  Massachusetts  ;  in  Virginia  ;  in  Georgia ;  in  New  Jersey. 
Aside  from  Washington's  preeminent  fitness  for  the  position  of  commander- 
in-chief,  why  was  the  selection  of  a  Virginian  or  a  Southerner  desirable  ? 
What  were  the  causes  of  the  failure  of  the  Canada  expedition  ?  How  do 
you  account  for  the  refusal  of  the  Canadians  to  join  the  colonies  in  resist- 
ance to  Great  Britain  ?  If  the  British  had  succeeded  at  Fort  Moultrie, 
what  change  in  the  theatre  of  war  would  probably  have  occurred?  Which 
was  the  greater  rebel,  Washington  or  Bacon  ?  What  punishment  were  the 
American  leaders  liable  to  receive  in  case  of  the  failure  of  their  cause  ? 
What  are  "  unalienable  "  rights  ?  Name  those  mentioned  in  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  When,  according  to  the  Declaration,  may  a  people 
alter  or  abolish  their  form  of  government  ?  Which  "  injuries  and  usurpa- 
tions "  enumerated  in  the  Declaration  were  most  galling  to  the  colonists  ? 
What  was  the  full  title  of  the  first  constitution  of  the  United  States? 
What  does  this  title  suggest  to  have  been  the  leading  idea  of  the  framers 
of  the  Articles  ?  What  previous  confederation  had  existed  among  the 
colonies  ? 

HI.    STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  MIDDLE  STATES. 

(July  1776-July  1778.) 

275.  The  Plan  of  the  British. — Great  Britain  now  began 
active  operations  for  the  subjugation  of  her  rebellious  colonies. 
A  powerful  fleet  under  Admiral  Howe  was  sent  from  England 
with  an  army  of  trained  soldiers,  including  a  strong  force  of 
hired  German  troops.1  The  plan  of  the  British  was  to  attack 
our  coast-line  in  the  center,  and  by  forcibly  occupying  one  or 
more  of  the  Middle  States  to  cut  off  New  England  from  the 
South.  Accordingly,  for  the  next  two  years  (July,  1776,  to 
July,  1778)  we  shall  find  the  war  to  consist  mainly  of  a  great 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  rivers. 
The  military  events  may  be  grouped  under  three  heads  :  (i) 
Campaigns  around  New  York  City;  (2)  Campaigns  in  northern 
and  central  New  York;  (3)  Campaigns  around  Philadelphia. 

/'  i  These  German  troops  were  Hessians,  from  the  district  of  Hesse-Cassel.  The 
!  employment  of  foreign  hirelings  to  subdue  British-born  subjects  became  a  leading 
\  cause  of  American  hatred  for  the  mother-country. 


1 76 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY, 


i.     CAMPAIGNS  AROUND  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

276.  Battle  of  Long  Island.  —  In  accordance  with  the  plan 
just  mentioned,  New  York  was  the  first  point  of  attack  by  the 
British.  Washington  suspecting  their  inten- 
tion hastened  from  Boston  to  oppose  them. 
In  order  to  defend  the  city  of  New  York 
and  its  approaches,  he  was  compelled  to 
scatter  his  forces  over  a  line  of  twenty  miles. 
Abouthalf  of  his  army,  underGeneral  Putnam, 
was  stationed  on  Long  Island  at  Brooklyn 
Heights,  commanding  the  city.  Howe's  army  soon  arrived 
from  Halifax,  and  was  reinforced  by  the  fleets  of  Admiral 
Howe  (brother  of  the  General)  fresh  from  England,  and  of 
Admiral  Parker,  who  had  come  from  the  defeat  at  Fort  Moul- 
trie.  General  Howe  determined  to  capture  Putnam's  division, 
and  with  that  purpose  landed 
twenty  thousand  soldiers  on  the 
southwest  shore  of  Long  Island. 
On  the  27th  of  August  a  battle 
took  place,  in  which  the  Ameri- 
can advance-guard  was  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  more  than  one 
thousand  prisoners,  besides 
many  killed  and  wounded.  Be- 
fore storming  Putnam's  main 
force  on  Brooklyn  Heights, 
Howe  waited  for  his  fleet  to 
come  up.  Meanwhile  Wash- 
ington crossed  over  to  Long 
Island  from  New  York,  and 
having  collected  every  available 

boat  and  fishing  craft,  safely  conducted  the  remnant  of  Putnam's 
troops  across  to  New  York  by  night  under  cover  of  a  heavy  fog. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  1^7 

277.  British  occupy  New  York;   Washington's  Retreat 
Northward.  —  With  the  British  fleet  in  possession  of  the  har- 
bor, and  their  troops  occupying  Brooklyn  heights,  it  was  im- 
possible for  the  American  army  to  hold  New  York.     Washing- 
ton withdrew  from  the  city  to  the  northern  end  of  Manhattan 
Island,  and  was  soon  compelled  by  Howe's  superior  force  to 
cross  over  to  the  mainland  east  of  the  Hudson.     The  whole  of 
Manhattan  Island  thus  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  with 
the  exception  of  Fort  Washington,  which,  with  Fort  Lee  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  guarded  the  river.     There  was  an 
indecisive  engagement  at  White  Plains  between* Howe's  forces 
and  the  retreating  Americans.     Washington    then  retired  to 
North  Castle,  while  Howe  suddenly  turned  and  hurried  back 
toward  New  York.     He  had  just  learned  from  an  American 
deserter  of  the  position  and  strength  of  the  defenses  at  Fort 
Washington,  and  had  decided  to  attack  that  fortification.     Its 
garrison  made  a  gallant  defense,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender. 
Three  thousand  prisoners,  besides  a  large  quantity  of  stores, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.1    To  the  Americans,  this  was 
one  of  the  heaviest  losses  of  the  war. 

278.  Retreat   across   New  Jersey.  —  Washington,  fearing 
that  Howe  meditated  an  advance  on  Philadelphia,  left  half  of 
his  army  under  General  Charles  Lee  at  North  Castle,  while  he 
crossed  the  Hudson  into  New  Jersey  with  the  remainder  to 
watch  Howe's  movements.     On  the  approach  of  the  British 
General  Cornwallis,  Fort  Lee  was  evacuated,  and  Washington 
was  compelled  to  retreat.     Meanwhile  he  sent  repeated  orders 
to  General  Lee  to  bring  over  his  half  of  the  army,  that  he 
might  be  able  to  oppose  the  enemy.     But  Lee  was  jealous  of 

"'Insomuch  as  the  width  of  the  Hudson  at  this  point  was  so  great  that  Forts 
Washington  and  Lee  were  unable  to  prevent  British  ships  from  passing  up  the  river, 
Washington  had  directed  the  former  fort  to  be  evacuated.  But  in  the  absence  of  posi- 
tive orders,  and  in  deference  to  a  message  from  Congress  not  to  abandon  the  fort,  the 
officers  in  command  had  failed  to  carry  out  Washington's  plan. 


1 78 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Washington.  He  pretended  to  misunderstand,  and  sent  vari- 
ous excuses.1  Washington,  with  his  little  force  of  hardly  three 
thousand  men,  unable  to  risk  a  battle,  continued  to  retreat 
across  New  Jersey,  his  men  discouraged,  poorly  clad,  and  suffer- 


ing from  the  intense  cold.     Reaching  the  Delaware  he  crossed 
the  river,  taking  with  him  every  boat  that  could  be  found  for 

1  When  Lee  at  last  started  toward  Washington  he  was  surprised  and  captured  by 
a  small  British  force  while  spending  the  night  at  a  country-house  some  distance  from 
his  army.  (This  Lee  was  not  connected  with  the  Lees  of  Virginia.) 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  179 

miles  in  either  direction.  When  the  British  arrived  they  found 
it  impossible  to  cross.  They  then  went  into  winter  quarters, 
separating  their  army  into  several  divisions,  the  main  body  be- 
ing stationed  at  Princeton,  and  a  force  of  fifteen  hundred 
Hessians  at  Trenton. 

279.  Battle  of  Trenton.  —  Everything  now  looked  gloomy 
for  the  Americans.     Washington's  men  were  so  much  discour- 
aged that  when  their  time  expired  many  refused  to  reenlist,  and 
his  little  army  was  rapidly  decreasing  in  numbers.     In  response 
to  Howe's  proclamation  offering  pardon  and  protection  to  all 
who  would  swear  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  hundreds  of 
wealthy  persons  were  abandoning  the  American  cause.     Gen- 
eral Cornwallis,  thinking  the  war  was  over,  prepared  to  sail  for 
England.     Washington  saw  that  unless  some  success  was  won 
to  revive  the  drooping  spirits  of  his  countrymen,  the  cause  of 
liberty  would  be  lost.     He  formed  the  daring  plan  of  crossing 
the  Delaware,  now  dangerous  with  floating  ice,  and  attacking 
the  British  force  at  Trenton.     On  Christmas  night  he  safely 
conducted  his  men  across  the  stream,  and  advancing  through 
snow  and  sleet,  took  the  enemy  completely  by  surprise.     With 
the  loss  of  only  four  men  (two  killed  and  two  frozen  to  death) 
Washington  captured  the   entire  force  of  over  one  thousand 
Hessian  soldiers,  and  crossed  back  into  Pennsylvania  with  his 
prisoners  and  booty. 

280.  Battle  of  Princeton.  —  Four   days  later  Washington 
again  crossed   the   Delaware   and   occupied   Trenton.     Mean- 
while Cornwallis  hastily  abandoned  his  purpose  of  embarking 
for  England,  and  led  part  of  his  troops  from  Princeton  to  at- 
tack the  American  forces  at  Trenton.     After  some  skirmishing 
night  came  on,  and  Cornwallis  decided  to  wait  till  next  day  for 
reinforcements.     Washington's  position  was  now  most  critical. 
Behind  him  was  the  river  full  of  floating  ice.     If  the  British 
should  force  him  from  his  entrenchments  there  was  no  way  of 


i8o 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


escape,  and  a  surrender  seemed  inevitable.  Cornwallis  re- 
marked that  he  had  "  run  down  the  old  fox  at  last."  But 
again  the  genius  of  the  American  commander  turned  defeat 
into  victory.  Ordering  a  few  of  his  soldiers  to  go  within  hear- 
ing distance  of  his  enemy  and  to  pretend  to  throw  up  entrench- 
ments, others  to  keep  his  camp-fires  burning,  Washington 
secretly  withdrew  his  army  from  its  perilous  position,  stole 
around  Cornwallis,  and  at  sunrise  attacked  and  defeated  the 
British  force  at  Princeton  (January  3d),  capturing  nearly  five 
hundred  prisoners.  The  sound  of  cannon  behind  him  was  the 
first  hint  Cornwallis  had  that  his  enemy  had  escaped.  He 
hastened  to  the  rescue  of  his  men,  but  the  "old  fox"  had  out- 
generaled him.  Washington  had  withdrawn  to  Morristown 
Heights,  where  the  British  made  no  attempt  to  follow.  A 
general  retreat  of  the  British  to  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
ensued. 

2.     CAMPAIGNS  IN  NORTHERN  NEW   YORK. 

281.  Plan  of  the  British.  —  While  Howe  was  taking  pos- 
session of  New  York  City,  a  British  force  from  Canada  had 
made  an  unsuccessful  expedi- 
tion against  the  northern  part 
of  the  state.  Arnold,  in  com- 
mand of  a  small  American  fleet 
on  Lake  Champlain,  made  an 
heroic  resistance,  but  was 
forced  to  abandon  his  ships  and 
retire  within  the  defenses  of 
Ticonderoga.  The  British 
general  feared  to  attack  the 
fort,  and  withdrew  his  army  to 
Canada.  The  next  year  (1777) 
a  more  carefully  prepared  plan 
was  adopted.  Three  separate 
armies  were  to  penetrate  the  state  from  different  directions.  One 


\ 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  l8l 

army  under  General  Burgoyne  was  to  descend  from  the  north, 
by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson,  as  far  as  Albany. 
A  second  force,  much  smaller  than  the  first,  was  to  go  up  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  Ontario,  land  at  Oswego,  and  advancing 
from  the  west,  capture  Fort  Stanwix  in  central  New  York, 
then  join  Burgoyne  at  Albany.  At  the  same  time  General 
Howe's  army  at  New  York  was  to  ascend  the  Hudson,  and 
unite  with  the  two  other  forces.  Thus  would  the  conquest  of 
New  York  be  complete. 

282.  Burgoyne's  Advance.  —  Burgoyne,   with  eight   thou- 
sand men  splendidly  armed  and  equipped,  sailed  up  the  Sorrel 
River   and   Lake    Champlain,    unopposed    until    he    reached 
Ticonderoga.     After  a  brief  resistance,  the  garrison  abandoned 
this  stronghold,  and  Burgoyne  advanced  to  the  head  of  Lake 
George.     General  Schuyler,  commanding  the  American  forces, 
slowly  retreated  to  Bemis  Heights  on  the  Hudson,  about  thirty 
miles  above  Albany.     Burgoyne's  advance  was  now  attended 
with  the  greatest  difficulty.     His  line  of  march  lay  through  a 
swampy  wilderness  through  which  his  enemies  had  completely 
obstructed  every  road  by  cutting  down  trees  across  his  path 
and  destroying  bridges.     He  could  procure  no  food  from  the 
surrounding  country,  and  found  great  trouble  in  getting  sup- 
plies from  Canada. 

283.  Bennington  and  Fort  Stanwix.  —  Learning  that  the 
Americans  had  stores  of  provisions  at  Bennington,  Vermont, 
twenty  miles   distant,    Burgoyne    sent   one  thousand  men   to 
capture  them.     These  troops  were  attacked  by  General  Stark 
with   an   army  of  hastily  collected  New  England  militia,  and 
almost  the  entire  British  force  was  killed  or  captured.     Mean- 
while the  British  general,  St.  Leger,  with  an  army  of  British 
and   Indians,   had   advanced   from   Lake   Ontario   to    support 
Burgoyne,    and   was   now  besieging   Fort   Stanwix.     Schuyler 
sent  Arnold  to  relieve  the  fort.     By  a  stratagem  Arnold  sue- 


1 82  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

ceeded  in  creating  a  panic  in  St.  Leger's  troops.  They 
abandoned  the  siege  and  fled  to  the  west,  hopelessly  scattered. 
To  add  to  Burgoyne's  difficulties,  he  did  not  receive  the 
expected  support  of  Howe's  army  at  New  York,  Howe  having 
failed  to  get  orders  to  that  effect  until  too  late.  The  news  of 
the  successes  at  Bennington  and  Fort  Stanwix,  and  the  wrath 
occasioned  by  the  atrocities  of  the  Indian  allies  of  the  British 
brought  hundreds  of  recruits  to  the  American  army  and  enabled 
Schuyler  to  make  preparations  for  a  battle. 

284.  Battle  of  Saratoga.  —  At  this  critical  moment  news 
came  that  Congress  had  removed  Schuyler  from  command  and 
appointed  Gates  in  his  stead.1     Schuyler  bore  the   injustice 
nobly  and  lent  every  assistance  to  his  successor.     On  Septem- 
ber 19,  near  Saratoga,  a  desperate  but  indecisive  battle  was 
fought.     Both  armies  then  remained  three  weeks  in  their  in- 
trench ments,  Burgoyne's  position  growing  daily  more  perilous 
on  account  of  his  scant  supplies  and  the  increasing  numbers 
of  his  opponents.     Then   another  battle    was  fought  on   the 
same  ground  (October  7).     Gates  had  quarreled  with  Arnold 
and  stripped  him  of  his  command.     But  nevertheless  Arnold 
without  orders  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  old  command,  who  received  him  with 
cheers,  and  won  the  victory  while  Gates  stayed  in  his  tent. 

285.  Surrender  of  Burgoyne.  —  Burgoyne,  with  his  army 
beaten  and  dispirited,  cut  off  from  supplies,  and  surrounded  by 
a  force  three  times  as  large  as  his  own,  decided  to  surrender. 
On  the  iyth  of  October  the  papers  were  signed,  and  the  entire 
British  army  of  over  six  thousand  men  laid  down  their  arms. 
It  was  agreed  that  a  passage  to  Great  Britain  should  be  granted 
to  the  troops  on  condition  of  their  not  serving  again  in  the 

1  Not  long  before  this,  Congress  had  grossly  offended  Arnold  by  promoting  sub- 
ordinate officers  over  him,  on  the  ground  that  his  state,  Connecticut,  already  had 
two  generals.  The  unjust  treatment  of  Schuyler  was  also  due  to  state  prejudices. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.     '  183 

war.  (Congress  failed  to  carry  out  this  agreement.  The 
captured  men  remained  in  this  country  as  prisoners  of  war 
until  the  close  of  the  struggle.) 

286.  Results  of  the  Surrender.  —  After  this  great  victory 
the  American  forces  occupied  Ticonderoga  and  all  the  forts  on 
the  northern  frontier.  The  British  plan  to  cut  the  United 
States  in  two  by  seizing  the  Hudson  valley  had  failed.  The 
news  of  the  capture  of  a  whole  British  army  awakened  the 
wildest  joy  from  Maine  to  Georgia,  completely  counteracting 
the  depressing  effects  of  Brandy- 
wine  and  Germantown  (§§  288  and 
289).  Best  of  all,  the  victory 
hastened  the  decision  of  the  French 
government  to  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  the  United  States 
and  to  form  an  alliance  with  them. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  struggle 
the  sympathies  of  France  had  been 
with  the  Americans  and  against 
her  old  enemy,  England.  Her 
brave  Lafayette  had  voluntarily 

left  country  and  friends  to  fight  for  American  liberty.  Ship- 
loads of  supplies  and  large  sums  of  money  had  been  secretly 
sent  over.  The  American  commissioners  in  Paris,  Franklin, 
Deane,  and  Arthur  Lee,  had  been  urging  an  alliance.  In 
February,  1778,  a  treaty  of  alliance  was  signed,  and  a  French 
fleet  was  sent  over  to  aid  the  Americans. 


3.    CAMPAIGNS  'AROUND  PHILADELPHIA. 

287.  Plan  of  the  British.  —  Howe,  instead  of  ascending 
the  Hudson  to  cooperate  with  Burgoyne,  as  every  one  expected 
him  to  do,  decided  to  advance  upon  Philadelphia,  the  "rebel 
capital."  His  first  intention  was  to  lead  his  army  from  New 


1 84 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


York  by  land,  but  the  skillful  maneuvering  of  Washington 
caused  him  to  abandon  this  attempt.  He  then  embarked  his 
troops,  coasted  south,  entered  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  sailed  up 
to  its  head,  where  he  landed  his  army  for  their  march  to  Phila- 
delphia. As  soon  as  Washington  was  certain  of  his  enemy's 
movements,  he  hastened  to  oppose  him,  while  Schuyler  and 
Gates  were  endeavoring  to  check  Burgoyne  in  northern  New 
York. 

288.  Battle  of  the  Brandywine.  —  To  oppose  the  British 
advance    on   Philadelphia,  Washington   stationed  his  army  at 

Chad's  Ford  on  Brandywine 
Creek,  directly  in  their  line  of 
march.  Howe  divided  his  forces 
and  while  one  division  remained 
at  Chad's  Ford,  Cornwallis  led 
another  across  the  stream  sev- 
eral miles  above,  and  fell  upon 
Washington's  flank.  Although 
not  routed,  the  Americans  were 
driven  from  the  field  with  heavy 
loss  (September  n,  1777,  eight 
days  before  the  first  battle  of 
Saratoga).  This  was  the  first 
American  battle  in  which  the  young  French  Marquis  Lafayette 
participated.  Both  he  and  the  Polish  Count  Pulaski  showed 
conspicuous  gallantry  in  the  fight. 

289.  Philadelphia  taken;  Battle  of  Germantown.  —  The 

British  army  then  took  possession  of  Philadelphia,  marching 
proudly  into  the  city  with  bands  playing  and  colors  flying. 
Congress  hastily  adjourned  to  Lancaster,  then  to  York,  Penn- 
sylvania. The  main  body  of  Howe's  troops  was  stationed  at 
Germantown,  five  miles  from  Philadelphia.  Here  on  the  4th 
of  October  (three  days  before  the  second  battle  of  Saratoga) 


ladelphi; 


1 86  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Washington  attacked  them.  His  plans  were  admirable,  and 
doubtless  would  have  been  successful,  had  not  a  dense  fog 
prevented  their  being  carried  out  promptly.  Again  his  troops 
were  compelled  to  withdraw  from  the  field.  Soon  afterward 
the  forts  guarding  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  were  captured 
by  the  British.  This  gave  them  possession  of  the  river  and 
enabled  them  to  bring  their  supplies  directly  to  Philadelphia 
by  water. 

290.  A  Winter  of  Suffering  and  Gloom.  —  The  British  now 
went  into  winter  quarters  at  Philadelphia,  while  Washington 
retired  to  Valley  Forge,  about  twenty-five  miles  west  of  the 
city.  This  winter  of  1777-78  was  the  gloomiest  period  of  the 
war.  Washington's  men  had  to  build  the  rude  log  huts  which 
were  to  protect  them  from  the  cold.  Their  food  was  flour 
mixed  with  water,  which  they  baked  at  the  open  fires.  Many 
of  the  men  were  without  shirts,  and  hundreds  were  barefooted. 
Blankets  were  so  scarce  that  the  soldiers  often  had  to  sit  by 
the  fire  all  night  to  keep  from  freezing.  Sleeping  on  the  cold 
ground  produced  sickness,  which  spread  rapidly  among  the 
troops.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  suffering  a  few  of  Washing- 
ton's jealous  subordinate  officers  were  plotting  for  his  over- 
throw. His  defeats  at  Brandywine  and  Germantown  were 
contrasted  with  the  success  of  Schuyler  and  Gates  against 
Burgoyne.  A  conspiracy  known  as  the  Conway  Cabal,  from 
its  leader,  General  Conway,  endeavored  to  weaken  Washing- 
ton's influence  with  Congress  and  the  country,  that  he  might 
be  displaced  from  command,  and  Gates  appointed  in  his  stead. 
The  conspirators  made  some  headway  in  Congress,  but  their 
wretched  plot  was  at  last  made  public,  and  only  served  to 
strengthen  Washington  in  the  esteem  of  his  countrymen. 
Congress  at  this  time  was  woefully  inefficient.  Many  of  its 
members  feared  a  standing  army,  and  refused  to  follow  Wash- 
ington's advice  for  the  relief  of  the  troops.  The  ablest  mem- 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  187 

bers  of  the  first  and  second  Congresses  had  accepted  positions 
either  in  the  army  or  in  their  state  governments.  "  The  Con- 
tinental Congress  and  the  currency,"  wrote  Gouverneur  Morris 
in  1778,  "have  greatly  depreciated." 

291.  British  Retire  from  Philadelphia  to  New  York.— 

Although  Howe  had  driven  Washington's  army  from  two  battle- 
fields, and  had  occupied  Philadelphia,  yet  he  had  gained  no 
decisive  victory,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  his  army  outnumbered 
his  opponent's  two  to  one.  The  British  government,  dissatisfied 
with  the  results  of  his  campaign,  recalled  General  Howe,  and 
appointed  Sir  Henry  Clinton  his  successor.  The  expected 
arrival  of  the  French  fleet  now  made  it  necessary  for  the  Brit- 
ish to  concentrate  their  forces  at  New  York.  Accordingly, 
Philadelphia  was  evacuated,  and  General  Clinton  started  his 
army  across  New  Jersey  (June  18,  1778).  •  , 

292.  Battle   of   Monmouth.  —  Washington  hastened   from 
Valley  Forge  in  pursuit.     The  command  of  the  American  ad- 
vance fell  to  General  Charles  Lee,1  but  being  opposed  to  an 
attack  he  declined  to  act,  and  Washington  appointed  Lafayette 
in  his  stead.     Lee  afterward  changed  his  mind,  and  demanded 
his  place.     Lafayette,  to  save  embarrassment  to  Washington, 
at  once  yielded.     The  British  army  was  overtaken  near  Mon- 
mouth, and  an  engagement  began.     Lee,  apparently  having  no 
faith  in  the  ability  of  his  troops  to  stand  against  the  British 
regulars,  ordered  them  to  retire,  greatly  to  the  disgust  of  his 
men.    As  soon  as  word  was  carried  to  Washington,  he  dashed 
to  the  front  at  full  speed,  meeting  Lee  with  his  men  in  full  re- 
treat.    Overwhelmed  with   indignation   at    Lee's  conduct,  he 
rebuked  that  general  in  severest  terms,  and  ordered  him  to  the 
rear.     Then  rallying  the  troops,  he  held  his  ground  till  night 
ended  the  conflict.     At  midnight  Clinton  stole  away,  leaving 

1  Lee  had  been  exchanged  for  the  British  general,  Prescott,  whom  a  few  Ameri- 
cans had  surprised  and  captured. 


1 88  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

his  dead  unburied.  Neither  side  had  been  defeated,  yet  in 
effect  the  battle  was  a  victory  for  the  Americans.  The  next 
day  Lee  wrote  an  insolent  note  to  Washington,  demanding  an 
apology  for  his  language  on  the  battlefield.  He  was  placed 
under  arrest  and  tried  for  disobedience  to  orders,  misbehavior 
on  the  field,  and  disrespect  to  the  commander-in-chief.  Con- 
victed on  all  three  charges,  he  was  suspended  from  his  com- 
mand for  one  year.  He  never  returned  to  the  army,  but  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  as  a  hermit  on  his  estate. 

293.  Indian  Massacres.  —  In  the  northeastern  part  of  Penn- 
sylvania, where  the  Susquehanna  river  breaks  through  the  moun- 
tains, is  the  beautiful  valley  of  Wyoming.     In  the  summer  of 
1778   a  party  of   British  and  Indians  swept  down  upon  this 
peaceful  region.     The  men  were  nearly  all  away  in  the  Conti- 
nental armies.     A  small  force  hastily  collected  to  oppose  the 
invaders  was   beaten.     Scenes    of   horrible  cruelty   followed. 
The  whole  valley  was  laid  waste,  helpless  women  and  children 
were  burned  at  the  stake,  or  put  to  death  with  sickening  tor- 
tures.     Cherry  Valley,  in  central  New  York,  was  attacked  a  few 
months  later,  and  its  inhabitants  were  treated  in  the  same  hor- 
rible manner.     In  the  summer  of  the  next  year  (1779),  Wash- 
ington sent  an  army  under  General  Sullivan  into  western  New 
York  to  break  up  the  strongholds  of  the  Indians  and  Tories  in 
that  region.     Sullivan   defeated  the  enemy's  force,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  burn  their  villages,  destroy  their  growing  crops,  and 
cut  down  their  fruit  trees.     The  Indians  never  recovered  from 
this  crushing  blow. 

294.  The  War  Transferred  to  the  South.  —  After  the  battle 
of  Monmouth  Clinton  retired  to  New  York,  while  Washington 
remained  in  striking  distance  of  the  city  to  watch  every  move- 
ment of  his  enemy.     Save  for  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  the 
British  garrison  at  Newport,  Rhode   Island,  by  a  land  force 
under  General  Sullivan,  aided  by"  a  French  fleet  (in  the  sum- 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  189 

mer  of  1778),  there  was  no  other  military  movement  of  any 
consequence  in  the  states  north  of  Virginia  during  the  rest  of 
the  war.  The  cherished  plan  of  the  British  to  cut  the  United 
States  in  two  by  seizing  the  middle  division  had  failed.  Hence- 
forth they  directed  their  efforts  to  conquering  the  Southern 
states. 

295.  Summary  of  War  in  the  Middle  States.  —  The  plan  of  the  Brit- 
ish was  to  cut  the  United  States  in  two  by  taking  possession  of  the  Hud- 
son or  Delaware  rivers.     They  first  attempted  to  seize  the  Hudson.     Gen- 
eral Howe  won  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  then  took  New  York  City,  and 
drove  Washington  up  to  North  Castle.     Fort  Washington  on  the  Hudson 
was  surrendered  to  the   British.     Washington,   having  crossed  into  New 
Jersey,  was  compelled  to  retreat  across  that  state,  escaping  over  the  Dela- 
ware.    On  Christmas  night  he  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Trenton,  and  an- 
other ten  days  later  at  Princeton.     The  British  general,  Burgoyne,  sup- 
ported by  St.  Leger,  made  an  attempt  to  seize  the  Hudson  River  from  the 
north.     This  campaign  ended  in  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  to  Gates  at 
Saratoga,  October  17,  1777.     France  then  formed  an  alliance   with  the 
United  States,  and  sent  over  ships  and  men  to  our  aid.     Meanwhile  Gen- 
eral Howe  determined  to  seize  Philadelphia  and  the  Delaware  River.     Ad- 
vancing by  way  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  he  gained  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and 
Germantown,  and  occupied  Philadelphia.     Washington's  army  spent  a  ter- 
rible winter  at  Valley  Forge.     The  expected  arrival  of  the  French  fleet 
caused  the  British  to  retire  to  New  York.     Washington  followed  them  and 
fought  an  indecisive  battle  at  Monmouth.     The  war  was  then  transferred 
to  the  South. 

296.  Thought  Questions.  —  Why  was  it  so  difficult  for  Washington  to 
defend  New  York  City?     Why  was  control  of  the  Hudson  so  important? 
On  what  previous  occasions  did  New  York  City  surrender  to  a  foreign 
fleet  ?     In  the  campaigns  around  New  York  City,  mention  two  instances 
in  which  Washington's  orders  were  not  obeyed.     What  was  the  result  in 
each    case?     What    results    might    have    followed   if   Washington    had 
attempted  to  hold  New  York  City  ?     What  evidence  of  good  generalship 
did  Washington  show  in  the  escape  from  Long  Island  and  the  subsequent 
retreat  ?  in  his  operations  during  the  two  weeks  beginning  Christmas  day, 
1776?     Mention  the  battles  in  which  General  Arnold  has  taken  part  up  to 
this  point  in  the  war.     What  were  the  causes  of  the  failure  of  the  British 
attempt  to  take  the  Hudson  River  from  the  north  ?     Who  deserves  most 


1 9o 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


credit  for  the  capture  of  Burgoyne  ?  Why  was  France  more  willing  to  aid 
us  than  was  Holland  or  Spain  ?  In  which  of  the  campaigns  in  the  Middle 
states  was  the  greatest  military  skill  displayed  by  American  commanders  ? 
Which  campaign  was  most  decisive  in  its  results  ?  Why  did  the  British 
consider  control  of  the  Delaware  River  important  ?  Were  the  money  and 
supplies  of  the  French,  or  their  land  troops,  or  their  fleet  most  needed  by 
the  Americans?  How  was  Washington  hampered  by  Congress?  by  his 
subordinate  officers  ? 


IV     THE  WAR  BEYOND  THE  FRONTIERS. 

(I778-79-) 
/.     WEST  OF  THE  ALLEGHANIES. 

297.  Clarke's  Conquest  of  the  Illinois  Country.  —  The 
region  between  the  Ohio  River  and  the  Great  Lakes  was 
claimed  by  Virginia  under  her  charter  of  1609,  but  a  recent 
act  of  Parliament  had 
declared  it  part  of 
the  British  Province 
of  Quebec.  In 
1778,  George  Rogers 
Clarke,  member  of 
the  Virginia  Legisla- 
ture from  the  "  Coun- 
ty of  Kentucky, '' 
formed  the  bold  plan 
of  seizing  the  British 
forts  between  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi 
Rivers.  Governor 
Patrick  Henry  and  the  Legislature  of  Virginia  approved  the 
plan,  and  granted  Clarke  a  small  equipment  of  troops  and 
supplies.  Under  a  leader  of  less  enthusiasm  and  strength  of 
will  than  this  "  Hannibal  of  the  West,"  the  hazardous  enter- 
prise would  have  been  a  failure.  But  Clarke's  little  band, 


Clarke's   Expedition 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  IQI 

sometimes  marching  for  days  without  food,  crossed  trackless 
prairies,  waded  through  miles  of  overflowed  river-bottoms,  over- 
awed hostile  Indians,  and  finally  reaching  the  British  posts  in 
Illinois  and  Indiana,  compelled  them  to  surrender.  The  neigh- 
boring French  settlers  were  made  to  swear  allegiance  to  Vir- 
ginia. This  territory  was  at  once  constituted  a  county  of 
Virginia,  and  was  named  the  County  of  Illinois.  The  fact  that 
it  had  been  conquered  by  Clarke,  and  was  held  by  American 
troops  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  the  basis  of  the  claim  to  its 
ownership  made  by  the  United  States  and  finally  admitted  by 
Great  Britain  in  the  treaty  of  peace.  But  for  the  genius  of 
George  Rogers  Clarke,  the  Ohio  River,  instead  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  would  probably  have  been  fixed  as  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  British  America.  (§  329.) 

298.  The   Indians   of  the  Southwest.  —  Constant  efforts 
were   made   by  British   agents  to  arouse  the  Indians  on  the 
western  frontiers  of  the  Southern  states.      During  the  early 
years  of  the  Revolution,  there  were  frequent  conflicts  between 
the   savages   and  the  militia  of  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  and 
Georgia.     In  the  latter  part  of  the  war,  the  Indians  were  kept 
quiet  chiefly  through  the   efforts  of  General  Joseph   Martin, 
Indian  agent  for  Virginia,  who  made  his  home  among  them 
and  wielded  a  great  influence  over  them.     It  was  this  peaceful 
condition   of  the  savages  that   made    the    victory    at    King's 
Mountain  possible,  by  enabling  the  frontiersmen  who  won  that 
battle  to  leave  their  homes  for  a  time  unprotected.1 

z.    ON  THE  OCEAN. 

299.  Naval  Forces  of  the  United  States.  —  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war  Congress  organized  a  little  navy  of  five  ships 
with    Esek   Hopkins,    of    Rhode    Island,    commander-in-chief. 

1  In  1779,  Spanish  troops  under  Governor  Galvez,  of  New  Orleans,  captured  the 
British  forts  on  the  lower  Mississippi.  Within  the  next  two  years,  they  also  took 
Mobile  and  Pensacola. 


192 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Before  the  war  was  over,  almost  every  one  of  these  vessels 
had  been  captured,  or  burned  to  avoid  capture.  Several 
states  maintained  independent  naval 
forces  of  their  own.  But  the  com- 
bined navies  of  Congress  and  the 
separate  states  were  unable  to  cope 
with  the  power  of  Great  Britain  on 
the  sea.  Until  the  very  close  of  the 
war,  little  aid  was  rendered  by  the 
French  fleet.  Our  most  effective 
service  on  the  ocean  was  performed 
by  the  numerous  privateers  commis- 
sioned by  Congress.  These  inflicted 


untold  damage  on  British  commerce. 

300.  Paul  Jones's  Victory.  — The  most  noteworthy  naval 
battle  of  the  war  was  fought  on  the  North  Sea,  near  the  coast 
of  England,  off  Flamborough 
Head.  Here  on  September  23, 
1779,  a  brilliant  victory  was 
gained  by  an  American  squad- 
ron under  Captain  John  Paul 
Jones.  Jones  was  a  young 
Scotchman  who  had  emigrated 
to  New  England,  and  had  been 
appointed  by  Congress,  captain 
in  the  United  States  navy. 
While  cruising  in  the  North 
Sea  with  a  little  fleet  of  French 
and  American  ships,  Jones  at- 
tacked two  British  men-of-war 

that  were  escorting  a  number  of  merchant  vessels.  Jones's 
own  ship,  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  (so  named  from  the 
"Good  Man  Richard"  of  Franklin's  Almanac)  attacked  the 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  1 93 

enemy's  Serapis.  The  two  ships  were  lashed  together  and 
fought  until  both  took  fire,  and  Jones's  vessel  was  on  the 
point  of  sinking.  At  last  the  Serapis  surrendered,  and  Jones 
had  barely  transferred  his  men  to  the  conquered  ship  when 
his  own  vessel  sank.  The  other  English  ship  was  also  cap- 
tured. 

301.  Summary.  —  Under    the   authority  of    the    State    of    Virginia, 
George  Rogers  Clarke  led  a  party  of  militia  against  the  British  posts  in 
the  Illinois  country,  then  held  by  Great  Britain  as  part  of  her  Province  of 
Quebec.     Clarke's  expedition  was  successful,  and  the  territory  north-west 
of  the  Ohio  was  organized  as  a  county  of  Virginia.    Its  occupation  by 
Virginian  troops  had  an  important  bearing  on  the  question  of  boundary  as 
agreed  upon  subsequently  in  the  treaty  of  peace. 

The  Indians  on  the  western  frontiers  were  a  source  of  constant  danger. 
The  expedition  of  General  Sullivan  in  the  North  (§  293),  and  the  efforts 
of  militia  leaders  together  with  skillful  diplomacy  of  our  Indian  agents  in 
the  South  served  to  hold  them  in  check.  In  1779  Captain  Paul  Jones 
gained  a  brilliant  naval  victory  off  the  coast  of  England. 

302.  Thought  Questions.  — -What  independent  part  did  Virginia  play  in 
the  Revolutionary  struggle  ?     What  results  followed  from  it  ?     How  do 
you  account  for  French  settlements  in  the  Illinois  country?     Why  were 
the  Indians  so  much  less  important  in  the  Revolution  than  in  the  French 
wars  ?    Why  were  so  few  victories  on  the  ocean  won  by  the  United  States  ? 


V.    WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

(1778-1781.) 

303.  Plan  of  the  British. —  The  successful  defense  of  Fort 
Moultrie  in  the  early  part  of  the  war  (§  269)  had  checked 
the  first  attempt  of  the  British  to  subdue  the  Southern  colonies. 
Defeated  now  in  the  New  England  and  Middle  states,  they 
determined  to  renew  their  efforts  for  the  subjugation  of  the 
South.  Their  plan  was  first  to  overcome  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina,  then  from  these  states  to  work  their  way  northward. 
Accordingly  Clinton  ordered  part  of  his  army  under  command 
of  Colonel  Campbell  to  sail  from  New  York.  To  oppose  this 


194  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

movement  Congress  placed  General  Lincoln  in  command  of 
the  Southern  department. 

/.     IN  GEORGIA    AND    THE   CAROLINAS. 

304.  Fall  of  Savannah  and  Augusta.  —  Savannah,  Geor- 
gia, was  the  first  point  of  attack.     Before  Lincoln  could  arrive, 

the  small  force  of  defenders  had  been 
beaten,  and  the  town  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  British  (December, 
1778).  The  invaders  then  ascended 
the  Savannah  River  and  captured 
Augusta.  General  Prevost,  com- 
manding the  troops  in  the  British 
territory  of  Florida,  now  took  com- 
mand of  the  united  forces  of  the 

General   Lincoln.  enemy. 

305.  Georgia  Overrun  by  the  British.  —  The  militia  of 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia  rallied  under  command  of  Colonels 
Pickens  and  Clarke,  and  defeated  a  detachment  of  the  British 
at  Kettle  Creek,  Georgia.     Soon  afterward,  however,  a  division 
of    Lincoln's   army  under   General   Ashe  was    surprised    and 
beaten  at  Briar  Creek.     Georgia  seemed  now  (spring  of  1779) 
completely  in  the  power  of  the  British.     The  royal  governor 
was  reinstated,  and  the  old  colonial  government  restored. 

306.  Events  in  the  North.  —  While  these  events  were  going 
on  in  the  South,  General  Clinton  at  New  York  was  sending  out 
small  marauding  parties  to  various  points  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 
In  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  and  Virginia,  coast  towns  were 
plundered  and  burned,  citizens  murdered,  and  ladies  insulted. 
At  the  same  time,  Clinton  ascended  the  Hudson  and  captured 
the  fort  guarding  the  river  at  Stony  Point.     Washington  sent 
General  Wayne  (called  "  Mad  Anthony  Wayne  "  from  his  desper- 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  195 

ate  bravery)  to  recapture  the  place.  Wayne  determined  upon 
a  midnight  assault.  That  the  barking  of  curs  might  not  betray 
him,  he  ordered  every  dog  in  the  vicinity  killed.  That  no  shot 
from  his  own  troops  might  reveal  his  plan  he  made  his  men 
unload  their  guns,  and  advance  with  fixed  bayonets.  Moving 
in  perfect  silence,  his  men  reached  the  British  outposts  before 
they  were  discovered.  After  a  brief  conflict  the  garrison  sur- 
rendered (July  1 6,  1779).  Three  days  after  this  brilliant  ex- 
ploit the  captors  destroyed  the  works  and  evacuated  the  fort, 
Washington  finding  that  he  could  not  spare  enough  men  from 
his  army  to  defend  it. 

307.  Effort  to  Recapture  Savannah.  —  In  the  autumn  of 
this  year  the  French  fleet,  after  its  unsuccessful  attack  upon 
Newport,   Rhode  Island  (§  294),  appeared  before  Savannah. 
An  assault  upon  the  British  defenses  was  made  by  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  French  under  D'Estaing  and  the  Americans 
under  Lincoln  (October,  1779).  The  attack  was  a  disastrous  fail- 
ure.    Among  those  killed  in  the  assault  were  Count  Pulaski,  a 
brave  Polish  officer,  and  Sergeant  Jasper,  the  hero  of   Fort 
Moultrie.     Lincoln's  army  withdrew  into  South  Carolina,  and 
the  fleet  sailed  away  to  France. 

308.  British    Capture   Charleston.  —  Encouraged  by  the 
success  of  his  troops  in  Georgia,  Clinton  determined  to  take 
charge  of  the  Southern  army  himself,  and  to  begin  the  con- 
quest of  South  Carolina  by  an  attack  upon   Charleston,  the 
largest  city  in  the  South.     Leaving  a  sufficient  force  in  New 
York  to  hold  Washington  at  bay,  he  landed  thirty  miles  below 
Charleston,  and  led  his  army  overland  toward  the  city,  while 
his  fleet  approached  the  harbor.     Washington  sent  all  his  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina  troops  to  the  aid  of  Lincoln,  but  still 
that  general's  forces  were  wholly  inadequate  for  the  defense  of 
Charleston.     The  enemy's  troops  gradually  surrounded  him  on 
the  land  side,  while  their  fleet  in  the  midst  of  a  furious  thunder- 


196 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


storm  sailed  by  Fort  Moultrie,  which  guarded  the  entrance  to 
the  harbor,  and  joined  in  the  attack.  On  May  12,  1780, 
Charleston  was  surrendered,  and  Lincoln  with  his  whole  army 
of  about  two  thousand  men  became  prisoners  of  war. 

309.  South  Carolina  Overrun  by  the  British.  —  The  sur- 
render of  Lincoln's  army  together  with  the  capture  of  Charles- 
ton was  a  severe  blow  to  the  patriot  cause,  and  a  correspond- 
ing encouragement  to  the  British.     Clinton  sent  detachments 
into  the  interior  of  the  state,  and   issued   a  circular,  offering 

pardon  to  all  who  would  return  to  British 
allegiance,  and  calling  upon  all  the  people 
to  aid  in  reestablishing  the  royal  govern- 
ment under  penalty  of  being  treated  as 
rebels  and  traitors.  Then,  thinking  little 
else  remained  to  be  done,  Clinton  sailed 
away  to  New  York,  leaving  Cornwallis  to 
complete  the  conquest  of  the  South.  Al- 
though with  no  organized  army  of  defense, 
the  spirits  of  the  southern  patriots  were 
not  broken.  Small  bands  of  militia,  under 
such  leaders  as  Marion  (the  "  Swamp 
Fox"),  Sumter  (the  "Game  Cock"), 

Pickens,  and  Clarke,  carried  on  a  vigorous  warfare  of  sudden 
surprises  and  desperate  hand-to-hand  combats,  keeping  up  the 
courage  of  their  countrymen,  until  the  British  were  finally 
expelled  from  the  state.  "But  for  Marion  and  Sumter,"  wrote 
the  British  general,  "South  Carolina  would  be  at  peace." 

310.  Battle  of  Camden.  —  Against  the  advice  of  Washing- 
ton, Congress  appointed  General  Gates  to  the  command  of  the 
Southern  department,  to  succeed  the   captured   Lincoln.     Of 
Gates,  who  Was  praised  as  the  "conqueror  of  Burgoyne,"  great 
things  were  expected.     With  a  strong  army  he  hurried  south, 
disregarding  the  suggestions  of  his  officers  and  confident  of 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION. 


197 


victory.  He  encountered  the  British  under  Cornwallis  near 
Camden,  in  the  northern  part  of  South  Carolina.  Each  general 
had  decided  to  surprise  the  other  by  a  night  attack.  About 
two  o'clock  in  the  morning  (August  16,  1780),  their  advance 


Petersburgh/ 
I    /'A 


Greene's   Campaign.  —  War  in  the  Carolinas. 

guards  met  and  a  general  conflict  followed.  The  American 
militia  fled  at  the  first  charge  of  the  enemy.  Our  regulars 
under  DeKalb  held  their  ground  until  their  brave  leader  fell 
pierced  by  eleven  wounds  ;  then  they  abandoned  the  field. 
Save  one  brigade  of  regulars,  who  retired  in  good  order,  the 


198  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

whole  army  of  Gates  was  completely  routed.  Gates  himself 
was  borne  in  the  headlong  flight  far  into  North  Carolina,  and 
that  night  found  him  sixty  miles  from  the  battlefield  without 
an  army.  This  was  the  severest  defeat  an  American  army  had 
ever  suffered.  Gates's  "Northern  laurels"  had  indeed  changed 
to  "Southern  willows." 

311.  Battle  of  King's  Mountain  (October  7,  1780). — After 
his   victory   at    Camden,    Cornwallis    advanced   to  Charlotte, 
North  Carolina,  the  county-seat  of  the  famous   Mecklenburg 
County  (§261)  and  a  "hornet's  nest  of  rebels"  as  the  British 
general   called  it.     From  here  he  sent  a  detachment  under 
General    Ferguson  to  enlist  the  Tories  in  the  highlands  of 
South  Carolina.     Ferguson's  force  of  twelve  hundred  men  was 
attacked   at    King's    Mountain,  on  the    border    between    the 
Carolinas,  by  a  band  of  frontiersmen  led  by  William  Campbell, 
Charles    McDowell,  John  Sevier,  and  other  border  chieftains. 
The  British  position  on  the  mountain  was  stormed  from  three 
directions.     The  Carolina  backwoodsmen  advanced  from  tree 
to  tree,   using  their  unerring  rifles  with  deadly  effect.     The 
British  general  was  killed  while  leading  a  charge,  and  his  men 
surrendered.    The  victors  dispersed  for  their  homes,  after  hav- 
ing tried  by  court-martial  and  hanged  for  treason  nine  of  their 
Tory  prisoners.     This  brilliant  victory,  sometimes  called  the 
"Bennington  of  the  South"  changed  the  whole  course  of  the 
war  in  this  department.     It  cost  Cornwallis  a  valuable  part  of 
his  army,  and  caused  him  to  abandon  his  plan  of  invading 
North  Carolina,  and  to  hurry  back  into  South  Carolina  in  order 
to  hold  the  British  posts  in  that  state. 

312.  Arnold's  Treason. — The  year  1780  was  full  of  dis- 
asters to   the   American   cause.     The   surrender  of  Lincoln's 
army  and  the  destruction  of  Gates's  were  now  closely  followed 
by  the  treason  of  one  of  our  bravest  officers  in  the  North. 
General  Benedict  Arnold  had  shown  conspicuous  courage  at 


WAR   OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  1 99 

Quebec,  on  Lake  Champlain,  and  at  Saratoga.  But  Congress 
had  treated  him  unjustly,  and  General  Gates  had  wronged 
him  ;  and  he  had  not  the  greatness  of  soul  to  forget  his  own 
slights  for  his  country's  sake.  After  the  British  evacuation  of 
Philadelphia,  Arnold  was  placed  in  command  of  that  city. 
Here  he  fell  in  love  with  a  Tory  lady.  Her  influence  and 
that  of  her  family  led  him  to  look  with  favor  upon  the 
enemies  of  his  country.  His  extravagant  living  and  self-willed 
conduct  got  him  into  trouble.  He  was  accused  of  squander- 
ing public  funds.  On  trial,  the  court  acquitted  him  of  inten- 
tional dishonesty,  but  sentenced  him  to  be  reprimanded  by  the 
commander-in-chief  for  "  imprudence."  Washington  performed 
the  disagreeable  duty  with  great  delicacy.  Arnold,  stung  by  the 
disgrace,  however,  determined  to  betray  his  country.  He  got 
himself  appointed  to  the  command  of  West  Point,  that  he 
might  surrender  that  important  post  to  the  British.  Clinton 
sent  Major  Andre  up  the  Hudson  to  confer  with  him.  As 
Andre  was  returning  to  New  York  in  disguise,  he  was  arrested 
by  three  militiamen,  who  searched  him  and  discovered  in  his 
boots  papers  revealing  Arnold's  base  plot.  Word  was  carried 
to  Arnold  at  West  Point  that  his  plans  were  discovered.  He 
escaped  at  once  on  board  a  British  vessel  in  the  river,  and 
reached  New  York  in  safety.  Although  he  failed  to  deliver 
up  West  Point,  he  received  ,£10,000  and  the  rank  of  general 
in  the  British  army  for  his  treason.  Major  Andre  was  tried  as 
a  spy  and  executed. 

313.  Greene  Placed  in  Command.  —  Congress,  following 
Washington's  suggestion,  now  appointed  General  Greene  to 
succeed  the  conquered  Gates.  On  reaching  the  Carolinas, 
Greene  found  a  difficult  task  confronting  him.  The  British 
had  possession  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  and  were  ready 
to  advance  upon  North  Carolina.  Their  troops  were  well 
disciplined  and  equipped;  their  officers,  Cornwallis,  Tarleton, 


2OO  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  Rawdon,  were  bold  and  skillful.  To  meet  these  tremen- 
dous odds,  Greene  had  a  mere  handful  of  men,  the  remnant  of 
Gates's  conquered  army.  His  troops  were  without  supplies, 
the  people  were  dispirited.  Yet  Greene  himself  was  one  of 
the  ablest  generals  of  his  time,  and  his  genius  was  worth  a 
dozen  armies.  Moreover,  he  was  aided  by  a  splendid  group 
of  subordinate  officers.  There  was  Daniel  Morgan,  who  had 
served  with  distinction  at  Quebec  and 
Saratoga.  Like  Arnold,  he  had  been 
unjustly  treated  by  Congress,  and  had 
retired  in  disgust  to  his  home  in  Vir- 
ginia. But  on  learning  of  the  defeat  at 
Camden,  he  forgot  his  wrongs  and 
hastened  to  the  defense  of  his  country. 
There  were  those  splendid  cavalry 
leaders,  Henry  Lee  (known  as  "  Light- 
horse  Harry"),  father  of  the  distin- 
guished Robert  E.  Lee,  and  William 
Washington,  cousin  of  the  commander- 

in-chief,  besides  the  militia  chieftains,  Marion,  Sumter,  and 
Pickens,  who  were  ever  ready  to  strike  a  daring  blow.  We 
shall  see  how  all  the  advantages  of  the  enemy  were  overcome, 
and  the  Southern  states  recovered  from  the  British. 

314.  Battle  of  the  Cowpens. —  After  the  defeat  at  King's 
Mountain,  Cornwallis  had  withdrawn  to  Winsboro,  in  the 
northern  part  of  South  Carolina.  Greene  advanced  into  South 
Carolina,  and  encamped  on  the  Pedee  River  directly  east  of 
Cornwallis.  The  American  commander  now  decided  to  divide 
his  little  army.  He  sent  Morgan  around  the  enemy's  position 
to  threaten  the  British  posts  in  the  western  part  of  the  state. 
Cornwallis  by  this  time  was  ready  for  a  second  invasion  of 
North  Carolina,  but  he  was  unwilling  to  leave  Morgan  in  his 
rear.  Like  Greene,  the  British  general  then  divided  his  army, 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  2OI 

sending  a  detachment  under  Tarleton  after  Morgan.  Tarleton 
overtook  Morgan  at  the  Cowpens,  a  few  miles  from  King's 
Mountain.  In  a  hotly  contested  battle  the  British  were  de- 
feated. After  a  desperate  single  combat  with  Colonel  Washing- 
ton, Tarleton  himself  barely  escaped  with  a  sword-cut  in  the 
hand.  This  decisive  victory  deprived  Cornwallis  of  one-third 
of  his  army,  and  severely  crippled  his  movements. 

315.  Greene's  Retreat. —  (See  map,  p.  197.)     Morgan  now 
hastened  back  to   reunite   his   forces  with  those  of    Greene. 
Cornwallis  made  all  speed  to  intercept  him  at  the  fords  of  the 
Catawba.     Morgan,  by  a  rapid  march,  reached  the  river  first, 
and  crossed  in  safety.     A  sudden  rise  in  the  stream  prevented 
the  British  from  crossing  at  once.     Meanwhile  Greene  placed 
a  subordinate  officer  in  charge  of  his  main  army,  with  orders  to 
retire  northward  so  as  to  join   Morgan's  retreating  division, 
while  he  himself  dashed  across  the  country  by  the  shortest 
roads  to  Morgan's  hard-pressed  men.     He  joined  them  at  the 
Catawba  and  at  once  took  charge  of  the  retreat.     Cornwallis, 
having  burned  all  his  heavy  baggage  that  might  impede  his 
movements,  hastened  the  pursuit.     He  reached  the  Yadkin  a 
few  hours  after  the  Americans  had  crossed,  but  again  a  sudden 
rise  in  the  water  checked    his  advance.     At  Guilford  Court 
House,  in  northern  North  Carolina,  Greene's  main  army  joined 
him,  but  still  his  force  was  too  small  to  risk  a  battle.     Contin- 
uing the  retreat,  he  reached  the  Dan  River,  and  crossed  over 
into  Virginia.     Cornwallis,  baffled  at  last,  gave  up  the  pursuit. 

316.  Guilford  Court  House. —  The  British  general  turned 
back   into    North    Carolina,   and  proclaiming  that  state  con- 
quered, called  upon  the  North  Carolinians  to  return  to  their 
allegiance  to  the  king.     But  Greene,  by  no  means  beaten,  re- 
crossed  the  Dan,  and  having  received  heavy  reinforcements, 
engaged  Cornwallis  in  battle  at  Guilford  Court  House.     After 
a  desperate  conflict  in  which  the  bravery  of  the  militia  atoned 


2O2  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

for  their  disgraceful  conduct  at  Camden,  Greene  retreated, 
leaving  the  enemy  in  possession  of  the  field.  Cornwallis 
claimed  a  victory,  yet  his  loss  was  so  heavy  that  it  was  said  in 
England  that  "  another  such  victory  would  destroy  the  British 
army." 

317.  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas  Recovered.  —  Cornwallis 
now  began  a  retreat  to  Wilmington,  on  the  North  Carolina 
coast.  Greene  pursued  him  for  some  distance,  then  correctly 
judging  that  he  had  nothing  to  fear  from  Cornwallis's  army  at 
present,  hastened  to  the  relief  of  South  Carolina,  in  which 
state  several  strong  posts  were  held  by  the  British.  At  Hob- 
kirk  Hill,  near  Camden,  Greene,  though  compelled  to  retreat, 
proceeded  as  usual  to  reap  all  the  fruits  of  victory.  The 
British  evacuated  Camden,  and  one  post  after  another  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Americans.  Eutaw  Springs,  a  drawn  battle, 
was  really  another  victory  for  Greene.  The  British  retired  to 
Charleston,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  war  remained  cooped  up 
on  the  coast.  Thus,  in  a  little  more  than  a  year,  Greene's 
splendid  generalship  had  wrested  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas 
from  the  control  of  the  British. 


2.    IN  VIRGINIA. 

318.  Plan  of  Cornwallis.  —  The  traitor  Arnold,  with  a 
British  force,  had  been  committing  ravages  in  Virginia.  He 
was  opposed  by  a  small  army  under  Baron  Steuben,  an 
experienced  German  officer  who  had  come  over  to  aid  the 
Americans.  Afterward  Lafayette  was  sent  with  a  body  of 
Northern  troops  to  capture  the  traitor.  Cornwallis,  now  that 
he  found  himself  out-generalled  by  Greene,  determined  to 
abandon  the  Carolinas,  march  up  into  Virginia,  unite  his 
troops  with  those  of  Arnold,  and  attempt  the  conquest  of  this, 
the  most  powerful  state  in  the  South. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  2O3 

319.  Washington's   Daring   Plan.  —  So   far,    the   French 
army  and  fleet  had  been  of  little  direct  service  to  the  Ameri- 
cans.    In  fact  the  great  value  of  the  French  alliance  up  to  this 
time    had    been    indirect,    in    keeping 

England  so  busy  in  other  parts  of  the 
world  that  she  was  unable  to  concen- 
trate her  energies  upon  her  revolted 
colonies.  In  the  summer  of  1781,  how- 
ever, a  French  fleet  under  DeGrasse 
again  approached  the  coast  of  the 
United  States.  Washington  now  de- 
termined to  strike  a  telling  blow.  His 
first  plan  was  a  joint  attack  upon  New 
York  by  his  own  troops  and  the  allied 
fleet,  hoping  thus  to  overwhelm  Clin- 
ton's army  and  end  the  war.  But  learning  that  Cornwallis  had 
come  up  into  Virginia  and  was  stationed  near  the  coast  with 
the  army  of  Lafayette  in  front  of  him,  Washington  formed  this 
daring  plan :  to  hurry  his  own  army  four  hundred  miles  south- 
ward into  Virginia ;  to  join  Lafayette ;  and  while  the  French 
fleet  prevented  the  escape  of  Cornwallis,  to  crush  that  general's 
army  before  Clinton  could  send  him  aid  from  New  York. 

320.  Movements  of  the  Armies. —  Cornwallis  invaded  Vir- 
ginia, Lafayette's  small  force  retreating  before  him.     Clinton, 
who  now  feared  an  attack  upon  New  York,  sent  word  to  Corn- 
wallis to  keep  near  the  coast,  so  as  to  be  able  to  sail  to  his  aid 
at  any  moment.    Accordingly  Cornwallis  took  position  at  York- 
town,  on  a  peninsula  between  the  mouths  of  the  James  and 
York  Rivers.    Meanwhile,  as  soon  as  Washington  learned  that 
the  French  fleet  had  started  from  the  West  Indies  for  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  he  entered  upon  the  execution  of  his  brilliant  plan. 
Hurling   his  troops    southward  with    all    possible    haste    and 
secrecy,  he  had  almost  reached  the  Maryland  border  before 


2O4 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Clinton  understood  his  movements.  Clinton  now  hastened  to 
send  his  fleet  against  the  French  squadron  that  had  entered 
Chesapeake  Bay.  At  the  same  time  he  ordered  Arnold  to 
attack  the  coast  towns  of  Connecticut,  hoping  thus  to  draw 


Washington's   March  upon  Yorktown. 

Washington  back.  Both  plans  failed  of  their  object.  The 
English  fleet  was  driven  back  from  the  mouth  of  the  Chesa- 
peake, and  Washington,  refusing  to  be  enticed  from  his  prey, 
left  Connecticut  to  take  care  of  itself.  Reaching  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  the  American  commander  completed  his 
swift  journey  in  ships,  and  took  command  of  the  combined 
armies  on  Yorktown  peninsula. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  2O5 

321.  Surrender  at  Yorktown. —  Cornwallis  was  entrapped. 
Encamped  on  a  narrow  peninsula,  the  French  fleet  threatened 
three  sides  of  his  position,  while  an  army  twice  the  size  of  his 
own  blocked  his  escape  by  land.     The  French  troops  under 
General    Rochambeau    put    themselves    under    Washington's 
orders,  and  vied  with  their  American   allies   in  storming  the 
British  works.     One  redoubt  after  another  was  taken.    Finally, 
on  the  igth  of  October,  Cornwallis  surrendered.     His  troops, 
eight  thousand  strong,   marched   between   two   long  lines  of 
French  and  American  soldiers  to  lay  down  their  arms,  while 
their  bands  played  an  old  English  air,  "The  World's  Turned 
Upside  Down." 

322.  Result  of  the  Victory. —  Swift  messengers  sped  the 
news  of  the  glorious  victory  through  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  land.     Congress  adjourned  at  once  to  church  for  a  service 
of  thanksgiving  and  prayer.     The  joy  of  the  people  knew  no 
limit,  for  they  realized  that  the  capture  of  this  British  army 
must  close  the  war.     In  England,  Lord  North's  ministry  was 
overthrown,  and  a  new  ministry  favorable  to  the  United  States 
was  chosen.     For  the  last  three  years  plucky  old  England  had 
been  waging  war,  single-handed  and  alone,  with  three  of  the 
most  powerful  nations  in  the  world,  France,  Spain,  and  Hol- 
land.    She  now  realized  that  to  subdue  her  rebellious  colonies, 
whose  courage  and  love  of  freedom  equaled  her  own,  was  a 
hopeless  task.     Moreover,  from  the  beginning  of  the  struggle, 
a  strong  minority  in  Parliament  had  opposed  the  war.     A  few 
months  before  the  surrender  at  Yorktown,  the  younger  Pitt  had 
denounced  the  American  war  as  "most  accursed,  wicked,  bar- 
barous,  cruel,   unnatural,   unjust,   and   diabolical."     Although 
British  troops  continued  to  hold  New  York,  Charleston,  and  a 
few  other  points,  no  further  hostilities  followed. 


2O6  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

323.  Treaty  of  Peace. —  In  September,  1783,  a  final  treaty 
of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris.     Its  first  provision  was  as  fol- 
lows :    "  His  Britannic  Majesty  acknowledges  the  said  United 
States,    viz.  :    New    Hampshire,    Massachusetts    Bay,    Rhode 
Island  and  Providence    Plantations,  Connecticut,  New  York, 
New    Jersey,     Pennsylvania,    Delaware,     Maryland,    Virginia, 
North    Carolina,    South    Carolina   and    Georgia    to    be   free, 
sovereign  and  independent  States."     At  the  same  time  Eng- 
land made  peace  with  the  other  nations  with  which  she  had 
been  at  war.   To  Spain  she  gave  back  Florida,  which  had  been 
a  British  possession  since  1763  (§  202). 

324.  Summary  of  the  War  in  the  South.  —  Unsuccessful  in  the  Middle 
states,  the  next  plan  of  the  British  was  to  occupy  Georgia  and  the  Caroli- 
nas,  and  from  these  states  to  work  their  way  northward. 

Savannah  and  Augusta  were  captured  by  the  British,  and  Georgia  was 
overrun,  1778-79.  General  Lincoln  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  re- 
capture Savannah.  He  was  himself  compelled  to  surrender  at  Charleston. 
His  successor,  General  Gates,  was  badly  beaten  at  Camden.  King's  Moun- 
tain was  a  brilliant  victory  for  the  American  militia.  General  Greene,  suc- 
cessor of  Gates,  by  skillful  manoeuvering,  without  gaining  any  decisive 
victory,  recovered  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas  from  the  British.  Cornwallis 
having  advanced  from  North  Carolina  into  Virginia,  was  besieged  at  York- 
town  by  the  combined  forces  of  Washington,  Lafayette,  and  the  French 
fleet.  He  surrendered  October  19,  1781.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  made  two 
years  later. 

325.  Thought  Questions. — How  many  years  elapsed,  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war,  before  the  Southern  states  were  invaded?     Why  did  the 
British  defer  their  attack  on  this  section?    Why  did  they  attempt  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  South  when  they  did?     What  was  the  nature  of  most  of 
the  warfare  in  the  Southern  states  ?     In  which  of  his  campaigns  during 
the  Revolution  did  Washington  display  the  greatest  skill?     Whom  do  you 
consider  the  two  ablest  American  generals?     The  ablest  British  general? 
Give  grounds  for  your  opinion. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION.  2O/ 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (WAR  OF  THE  REVOLUTION). 

{Conduct  of  English  kings. 
Conduct  of  royal  governors. 
Feeling  at  close  of  French  wars. 

f  Purpose  of  the  laws. 

242.  The  Laws  of  Trade.  4  „ 

^  Four  requirements. 

r  The  laws  evaded. 

243,  244.  Enforcement  of  j   Admiralty  courts. 

the  Laws.         i   Writs  of  assistance. 

(_  Feeling  of  the  colonists. 

f  Salaries  of  Virginia  clergymen. 
2  15.  The  "Parson's  Case."  -I  Their  suit. 

[  Henry's  defiance  of  the  king. 

f  British  argument. 
246,  247.  Taxation  of  the  Colonies.   \  The  Stamp  Act. 

[_  Argument  of  the  colonists. 
f  Compared  with  U.  S.  Congress. 
248.  The  British  Parliament.  -I  "  Rotten  Boroughs." 

[_  Results  of  such  representation. 
(  In  Virginia. 

In  North  Carolina. 
249,250,251.   Resistance  to  the  I   In  Massachusetts. 

Stamp  Act.      1   The  Stamp  ^  ^^ 

I  Repeal  of  the  Act. 
f  Their  requirements. 

252.  The  Townshend  Acts.  -I  Action  of  Massachusetts  Assembly. 

[  Action  of  Virginia  Assembly. 

253.  The  Mutiny  Act.  (  £*°?  °f  NeJ  Y°rk  Assembly- 

\  The  Boston  Massacre. 

254.  The  Battle  of  Alamance. 

f  Purpose  of  the  tax. 

255.  The  Tea  Tax.  -I  Plans  to  enforce  it. 

[  Action  of  the  colonists. 

f  Boston  Port  Bill. 

256.  Punishment  of  Boston.  <  „,, 

^  Charter  of  Massachusetts  annulled. 

In  Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 

257.  Sympathy  for  Boston,  -j  In  Virginia. 

First  Continental  Congress. 


208  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


f  Purpose  of  the  British. 

260.  Lexington  and  J   Paul  Revere's  ride. 

Concord.        j    Skirmishes  at  Lexington  and  Concord. 
[_  The  return  march, 
f  In  England. 

261.  Effect  of  the  News.  -I  In  the  colonies. 

1^  Mecklenburg  Declaration. 
f  Fortification  of  the  hill. 
262-BunkerHlU-{  Attack  of  the  British. 

263.  Second  Continental  (  Measures  of  resistance. 

Congress.  \  Commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 

C  When  and  where. 

264.  Washington  takes  Command.  •(  „„     .  . 

l^  Dimculties  overcome. 

f  Purpose.  ' 

265.  Expedition  against  Canada.  <  March  of  the  armies. 

[  Results  accomplished. 

f  Dorchester  Heights. 

266.  Evacuation  of  Boston.  |  Whhdrawal  of  the  British 

267.  The  King's  Authority  f  Flight  of  royal  governors. 

Overthrown.          \  Battle  of  Moore's  Creek. 

268.  269.  Attack  on  the  f  The  North  Carolina  coast. 

Carolinas.      \  Battle  of  Fort  Moultrie. 

f  Action  of  North  Carolina. 

Of  Virginia. 
270,271.  Independence.^  /_,  _   & 

Of  Congress. 

[_  Synopsis  of  the  Declaration. 
272.  The  New  Government.     Adoption  of  a  constitution. 

'  275.  Plan  of  the  British. 

C  Washington's  defenses. 

276.  Battle  of  Long  Island.^  Howe's  attack. 

[  Washington's  escape. 

f  From  New  York  to  White  Plains. 

277,  278.  Washington's  .  ^  Washi 

Retreat. 

^  Retreat  across  New  Jersey. 

f  Despondency  of  Americans. 

279.  Battle  of  Trenton,  -j  , 

[  Washington  s  victory. 

f  Cornwallis's  change  of  plan. 

280.  Battle  of  Princetons   Washington's  critical  position. 

[_  His  splendid  generalship. 


WAR    OF    THE    REVOLUTION. 


209 


fc 
H 

'     .                                              f  First  expedition  from  Canada. 
281.  Plan  of  the  British.  1  „ 
[_  Burgoyne  s  plan. 

H 

f  Retreat  of  the  Americans. 

£ 

282,  283.  Burgoyne's   I   Bennington. 

s  * 

Advance.     |    Fort  Stanwix. 

Pi 

[  Recruits  for  Schuyler's  army. 

w          • 

f"  Schuyler  displaced. 

^    £ 

First  battle 

O    y 

ZS  ^ 

284,  285.  Battles  of  Saratoga,  j  Second  ^^ 

1 

<; 

[  Surrender  of  Burgoyne. 

CJ 

f  Territory  recovered  from  British. 
286.  Results  of  the      _                          ,  ,        .     . 
<    Encouragement  of  the  colonists. 
Surrender 

^  Aid  from  France. 

f  Howe's  first  intention. 
287.  Plan  of  the  British.  4    . 
[_  Advance  on  Philadelphia. 

X 

f  Howe's  strategy. 
288.  Battle  of  Brandywme.  <  _      .     ,.  ,     , 
\  Result  of  the  battle. 

04 

f  Philadelphia  taken. 

Q 

<« 

289.  Battle  of  Germantown.    ^   Fight  at  Germantown. 

3 

[  Forts  on  the  Delaware. 

5 

C  Sufferings  at  Valley  Forge. 

Q 

290.  Period  of  Gloom.  J   The  Conway  Cabal. 

2; 

[  Inefficiency  of  Congress. 

O       ^ 

C/3 

291.  British  retire  to  New  York.  {  5,°^.  T^1^ 
(_  Philadelphia  evacuated. 

{Conduct  of  Charles  Lee. 

O 

Washington's  indignation. 

fLt 

a 

Result  of  the  battle. 

u 

f  Wyoming  and  Cherry  Valley. 
293.  Indian  Massacres.  •{  n     .  ,             ruTJ- 
[_  Punishment  of  the  Indians. 

H 

,    C  Situation  of  the  armies. 
294-  War  Transferred  1  Eyents      Rhode 

to  the  South.      ]   „  .  .  , 
^  British  change  of  plan. 

u  * 

tt  O 


r  &. 


C  Claims  to  the  region. 

297.  Conquest  of  the  Illinois   I   Clarke  and  his  troops. 

Country.  j   The  hazardous  march. 

[  Result. 

298.  The  Indians  of  the  Southwest. 

^V/  C°ngrf  *' 
Naval  forces  of  the  states. 

_  Privateers. 
300.  Paul  Jones's  Victory. 


Naval  Forces  of  the 
United  States. 


210 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


3°3- 


Plan  of  the  British. 

304.  Fall  of  Savannah  and  Augusta. 

Kettle  Creek. 

305.  Georgia  Overrun.  ^   Briar  Creek. 

Result. 

Clinton's  marauding  expedition. 
Stony  Point. 

307.  Efforts  to  recapture  Savannah. 

f  Clinton's  advance. 

308.  Fall  of  Charleston.  1  _, 

\  The  surrender. 

Elation  of  the  British. 
Militia  leaders. 
C  General  Gates. 
310.  Battle  of  Camden.  <f    Plan  of  the  armies. 

L  Result  of  the  battle. 
3...  Battle  Of  King's     f  £dvanceinto  Mecklenburg  county. 

Mountain         i   £"*  8  Mou»tai11' 
|_  Results. 

312.  Arnold's  Treason. 

, 

313.  Greene  in  Command 


306.  Events  in  the  North. 


309.  South  Carolina  Overrun. 


f  His  difficulties. 

.  •{„.,.  „. 

\  Subordinate  o 


317.  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas 
Recovered. 


Subordinate  officers. 

{Position  of  the  armies. 
Plans  of  the  generals. 
The  battle. 
(Morgan's  division. 
Greene's  main  army. 
The  escape. 
316.  Battle  of  Guilford  Court  House. 

f  Cornwallis's  retreat. 
{    Hobkirk  Hill. 
{_  Eutaw  Springs. 

318.  Plan  of  Cornwallis. 

f  The  French  fleet. 

319.  Washington's  Plan.  •{ 

\  The  proposed  march. 

{Cornwallis. 
Washington. 
Clinton. 

321.  The  Surrender  at  Yorktown. 

,  f  In  United  States. 

322.  Results  of  the  Victory.  4  T 

*    \  In  Great  Britain. 

323.  Treaty  of  Peace. 


MAP  OF  THE 

UNITED    STATES 

AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 

Boundaries  fixed  by  Treaty  of  1783 


THE    CONFEDERATION.  2  I  I 


II.     THE     CONFEDERATION    (1781-89). 

326.  Authority  of  Congress  During  the  War.  —  The  first 
Continental  Congress  (1774)  claimed  no  political  power.     It 
was    merely  a  committee  of  the  different  colonies  to  consult 
about  their  wrongs.     At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  the 
need  of  concerted  action  of  all  the  colonies  was  so  apparent 
that  the  Congress  of  1775,  by  universal  consent,  began  to  exer- 
cise important  powers  of  government  relating  to  the  manage- 
ment of  the  war.     This  Congress  and  its  successors  assumed 
control  of  the  continental  armies,  appointed  officers   and  en- 
listed troops,  borrowed  and  issued  money,  declared  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  united  colonies,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  with 
France.      All   these    and   other   powers   it  exercised   on  the 
authority  of  the  vague  and  by  no  means  uniform  instructions 
of  the  different  states  to  their  delegates.     Its  measures  had,  in 
themselves,  no  authority  over  any  one  of  the  thirteen  sover- 
eign and  independent  states,  save  in  the  willing  obedience  of 
each.     It  was  six  years  after  Congress  began  to  exercise  cer- 
tain powers   of  government  before   any  constitution   defining 
those  powers  was  formally  agreed  upon. 

327.  Adoption  of  the  First  Constitution.  —  We  have  seen 
(§  272)  that,  at  the  time  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
Congress  took  steps  to  prepare  a   constitution  for  the  United 
States.     This  constitution,  called  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 
was  to  have  no  binding  effect  until  all  the  states  should  ratify 
it.     Most  of  the  states  did  so  at  once.     But  Maryland  refused 
her  assent  until  the  lands  northwest  of  the  Ohio  should  be  sur- 
rendered by  those  states  claiming  them,  and  should  be  recog- 
nized as  the  common  property  of  all  the  states,  to  be  used  in 
paying  the    debts    contracted    by  Congress.     She   based    her 
position  on  the  grounds,  (i)  that  the  control  of  this  region  had 
been  wrested  from  the  French  by  the  French  and  Indian  War, 


212  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

in  which  all  the  states  had  shared ;  (2)  that  the  possession  of 
such  a  vast  territory  would  give  an  overshadowing  influence  to 
the  few  states  claiming  it.  Thus  it  was  1781  before  Maryland 
ratified  the  Articles.  They  then  went  into  full  effect. 

328.  Nature  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation. — The  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  under  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion was  in  the  nature  of  a  league  between  sovereign  states  for 
certain  purposes.     The  Articles  expressly  declared  that  "  each 
State   retains   its   sovereignty,   freedom,    and   independence." 
There  was  no  president  of  the  United  States ;  there  were  no 
United  States  courts.     The  powers  of  government  were  vested 
in  a  Congress  which  was  composed  of  one  house,  its  members 
elected  for  one  year,  and  paid  by  their  respective  states.     No 
state  could  be  represented  by  less  than  two  or  more  than  seven 
members.     The  voting  in  Congress  was  by  states,  each  state 
having  one   vote.      The  most  important  powers  of  Congress 
were  to  declare  war,  deal  with  foreign  nations,  establish  post- 
offices,  settle  disputes  between  states,  borrow  money,  and  fix 
the  sums  to  be  raised  by  the  different  states  in  proportion  to 
the  value  of  the  land  and  buildings  in  each.     The  power  to 
coin  and  issue  money  was  shared  with  the  states.     The  con- 
sent of  nine  states  was  necessary  to  carry  any  important  meas- 
ure.    No  change  in  the  Articles  could  be  made  without  the 
approval  of  every  state. 

329.  Treaty  with  England.  —  The  final  treaty  of  peace  with 
England  (§  323)  was  ratified  by  Congress  in  1783.    The  boun- 
daries of  the  United  States  were  fixed  at  Canada  on  the  north 
(§  297),  the  Mississippi   River  on  the  west,   and   Florida  ex- 
tending west  to  the  Mississippi  on  the  south.     The  army  was 
disbanded    and   the    poorly   paid    soldiers    returned    to    their 
homes.     Washington  appeared  before  Congress  and  resigned 
his  office  as  commander-in-chief.     Savannah,  Charleston,  and 
New  York  were  evacuated  by  the  British.     It  was  twelve  years 


IS—  87  0?  77 

THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY  was  divided  into  the  five  Jo] - 

Jowjng  states:    a.  OKio,  admitted  1803j    .2.  Indiana,  admitted' 1816; 

«.  Illinois,  admitted  IB18;  4.  MicHgan,  admittei  1837:  B.  Wisconsin, 

admitted  1X48. 


THE  NORTHWEST 

TERRITORY 

1787. 


TH-E    CONFEDERATION.  213 

later,  however,  before  Great  Britain  surrendered   the  western 
posts  on  the  Canadian  frontier. 

330.  The    Northwest    Territory At    the   close   of  the 

Revolution,  Virginia  held,  besides  her  present  limits  and  those 
of  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  all  the  vast  domain  from  the 
Ohio  River  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  (§  297).    Her 
claim  to  the  Illinois  Country,  or  the  "Northwest  Territory,"  as 
it  was  afterward  called,  was  based  (i)  on  the  limits  fixed  by 
her  colonial  charter  of    1609,  (2)  on  it£  conquest   from  the 
British  by  her  tooops  under  Clarke,  (3)  upon  its  actual  occupa- 
tion by  her  officers.     Massachusetts,   Connecticut,   and  New 
York  also  made  claim  to  parts  of  this  region,  chiefly  on  the 
basis  of  their  colonial  charters.     When  the  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration were  being  adopted,  Maryland  made  the  bold  sugges- 
tion that  the  whole  territory  be  surrendered  to  Congress  as  the 
common  property  of  all  the  states  (§  326).     This  suggestion 
was  finally  carried  out.     In  1784  Virginia  generously  ceded  to 
Congress  all  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  that  was  claimed 
by  her.     The  other  states  likewise  gave  up  their  claims.     The 
acceptance   of   the    gift   made   it    necessary  for    Congress    to 
assume  new  and  important  powers  in  regard  to  the  government 
of  the  ceded  territory.     It  did  much  to  strengthen  the  union 
between  the  states,  and  was  one  of  the  most  momentous  events 
in  our  history. 

331.  The  Ordinance  of  1787. — The  act  of  Congress  pro- 
viding for  the  government  of  the  Northwest  Territory  is  known 
as  the  Ordinance  of  1787.     It  provided  that  the  territory  might 
be  divided  into  states,  not  exceeding  five  in  number,  whenever 
the  population  of  a  proposed  state  should  reach  sixty  thousand. 
In  the  meantime  the  territory  was  to  be  governed  by  oificers 
appointed  by   Congress.       In   this    territory  the    property  of 
parents  dying  without  wills  should  be  equally  divided  among 
the  children.     (The  laws  of  several  states  at  that  time  gave 


214  HISTORY    OP    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  eldest  son  all  the  property  ;  in  all  other  states  he  received 
a  double  share.)  The  Ordinance  further  provided  for  com- 
plete religious  freedom.  The  rights  of  trial  by  jury  and  of  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  were  to  be  forever  inviolable.  Schools 
were  to  be  encouraged,  and  slavery  forever  prohibited,1  though 
fugitive  slaves  from  other  states  were  to  be  returned  to  their 
owners.  Few  acts  of  Congress  have  had  a  more  far-reaching 
effect  than  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  It  not  only  moulded  to 
a  certain  extent  the  subsequent  history  of  the  great  states 
carved  from  the  Northwest  Territory,  but  it  served  as  a 
model  for  the  government  of  future  territories,  and  affected 
great  national  questions  of  the  next  century. 

332.  The    Southwest.  —  The    western   lands  south  of  the 
Ohio  were  claimed  by  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Georgia.     In   1784,  the   inhabitants   of  the   eastern 
part  .of  the  present  State  of  Tennessee  revolted  from  North 
Carolina  and  established  a  separate   state,  which  they  called 
Franklin.     They  elected  John  Sevier  (hero  of  King's  Mountain) 
governor,  organized  a  Legislature,  and  sent  a  delegate  to  Con- 
gress.     But  North  Carolina  reestablished  her  authority,  and, 
in    1790,   ceded    Tennessee    Territory  to   the   United    States. 
South  Carolina  had  given  up  her  western  claims  in   1787.     In 
1792  Virginia  consented  that  Kentucky  be  formed  into  a  sep- 
arate state.      Georgia  granted  to  the  United  States  the  terri- 
tory of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  in  1802.     Where  the  ceded 
land   did  not  at  once  become  a   state   (as   Kentucky)  it  was 
first  organized   into  a  territory  with  a  government  similar  to 
that  of  the  Northwest  Territory. 

333.  Navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  —  How  to  carry  their 
products  to  the  markets  of  the  world  was  a  serious  problem  to 
the  settlers  on  the  western  frontier.     There  were  few   roads 

l  This  was  the  first  limitation  by  law  of  the  extension  of  slavery,  and  it  was  sup- 
ported by  every  Southern  member  of  Congress. 


THE    CONFEDERATION. 


215 


across  the  mountains,  and  these  were  beset  with  difficulties 
and  dangers.  The  Mississippi  River  became  the  great  high- 
way of  trade  for  the  farmers  of  the  west.  But  the  territory  on 
both  banks  of  the  river  near  its  mouth  was  now  owned  by 
Spain  (see  map).  That  nation  claimed  the  sole  right  to  the 
navigation  of  the  lower  Mississippi,  and  threatened  to  tax  all 
other  than  Spanish  vessels  passing  the  mouth  of  the  stream. 
In  1786  a  treaty 'with  Spain  was  proposed  in  Congress  which 
provided  that  in  return  for  certain  privileges  to  be  granted 
by  Spain  to  our  commerce  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  we 
surrender  for  twenty-five  years  our  right  to  navigate  the 
Mississippi.  The  proposition  was  at  first  considered  favorably. 
At  once  a  storm  of  indignation  arose  throughout  the  South 
and  ^Southwest.  The  result  was,  Congress  finally  rejected 
the  proposal.  But  the  angry  discussions  over  the  matter 
called  attention  to  the  importance  of  establishing  our  control 
over  the  Mississippi.  At  the  same  time  a  bitter  feeling  was 
aroused  in  the  South  against  the  New  England  states,  whose 
delegates  in  Congress  favored  the  proposed  treaty. 

334.  Finances  of  the  Country. — The  varying  and  uncer- 
tain value  of  money  was  a  continual  source  of  distress  f-rom 
the  time  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  to  the  adoption 
of  our  present  Constitution. 
Congress  had  no  power  to  tax 
the  people.  Funds  for  the 
expenses  of  the  war  were  ob- 
tained from  three  sources  : 
(i)  The  manufacture  of  paper 
money  by  authority  of  Con- 
gress ;  (2)  grants  Of  money  Continental  Money. 

by  the  different   states;    (3) 

loans   from   Spain,    France,  and   Holland,   and   from  wealthy 

citizens  of  our  own  country  (notably  Robert  Morris,  of  Penn- 


2l6  HISTORY    OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 

sylvania,  whose  generous  aid  to  the  destitute  army  just  before 
the  battle  of  Trenton,  made  that  victory  possible).  The  first 
issue  of  "  Continental  currency  "  was  accepted  by  the  people 
at  its  face  value.  But  as  the  weakness  of  Congress  became 
apparent,  and  the  paper  money  continued  to  be  issued,  it  rap- 
idly decreased  in  value.  Laws  were  passed  to  make  the  peo- 
ple accept  the  paper  money  as  equal  in  value  to  gold.  But  by 
the  middle  of  the  war  a  Spanish  silver  dollar  was  worth  forty  of 
the  paper  dollars.  A  little  later  it  took  three  paper  dollars  to 
equal  one  cent.  By  the  close  of  the  war  the  Continental  money, 
having  lost  its  value  entirely,  disappeared  from  circulation,  and 
Congress  issued  no  more.  To  describe  an  utterly  worthless 

object,  people  said 
it  was  "not  worth  a 
Continental."  The 
different  states  is- 
sued paper  money 
with  a  similar  result. 
All  sorts  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  copper  coins 

ng  of  Massachusetts.  Q£     England5      Spairi) 

France,  and  Holland  were  in  circulation,  such  as  ninepences, 
doubloons,  pistoles,  bits,1  pistareens,  and  picayunes.  It  was  not 
until  1786  that  Congress  coined  any  money.  Then  the  silver 
dollar  (containing  375T%%  grains  of  silver),  with  the  present 
subdivisions  of  dimes  and  cents,  was  made  the  unit  of  value. 
This  simple  system  was  planned  by  Thomas  Jefferson  and 
Gouverneur  Morris. 

335.    Difficulties The  varying  standards  of  money  in  the 

different  states  threw  business  into  hopeless  confusion.  There 
was  no  uniformity  in  the  regulation  of  commerce.  The  states 

l  The  "bit"  was  a  Spanish  and  West  Indian  coin  of  the  value  of  ten  to  twelve- 
and-a-half  cents.  In  some  of  the  Western  states  to-day  "  two-bits,"  "  four-bits,"  and 
"  six-bits ;'  are  common  terms  to  designate  twenty-five,  fifty,  and  seventy-five  cents. 


THE    CONFEDERATION.  21  / 

quarreled  about  the  duties  on  imported  goods.  For  example, 
New  York  having  levied  a  heavy  duty  on  certain  articles  im- 
ported from  New  Jersey,  that  state  retaliated  by  imposing  a 
tax  of  fifteen  hundred  dollars  a  year  on  a  New  York  light- 
house situated  on  the  New  Jersey  coast.  In  Massachusetts 
the  poorer  classes  demanded  that  the  state  issue  paper  money. 
The  Legislature  refused,  and  at  the  same  time  appropriated  ad- 
ditional funds  to  Congress.  The  people,  already  heavily  taxed, 
rose  in  rebellion  under  Daniel  Shays,  an  officer  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  governor  called  out  four  thousand  troops,  and 
placed  them  under  General  Lincoln.  After  some  bloodshed, 
"  Shays's  Rebellion  "  was  suppressed. 

336.  Weakness  of  the  Government.  —  It  was  soon  found 
that  the  prosperity  and  good  government  of  the  people  were 
impossible  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  We  have  seen 
that  the  states  alone  had  the  power  of  taxation.  To  provide 
for  the  running  expenses  of  the  government,  Congress  could 
only  recommend  to  each  state  to  pay  its  share  of  the  total  sum 
needed  each  year.  Sometimes  a  state  failed  to  pay  its  appor- 
tionment. Few  states  were  prompt.  The  result  was  that 
Congress  was  constantly  begging  foreign  nations  for  loans, 
while  it  got  deeper  and  deeper  into  debt.  In  short,  Congress 
had  no  power  to  act  directly  upon  the  people.  It  could  act 
only  upon  the  states,  and  then  could  not  enforce  obedience. 
In  the  words  of  a  statesman  of  the  time,  "  Congress  may  make 
and  consider  treaties,  but  they  can  only  recommend  the  ob- 
servance of  them.  They  may  appoint  ambassadors,  but  they 
cannot  defray  their  expenses.  They  may  borrow  money  on 
the  faith  of  the  Union,  but  they  cannot  pay  a  dollar.  They 
may  coin  money,  but  they  cannot  buy  an  ounce  of  bullion. 
They  may  make  war  and  determine  what  troops  are  necessary, 
but  they  cannot  raise  a  single  soldier.  In  short,  they  may  de- 
clare everything,  but  they  can  do  nothing." 


2l8  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

337.  Efforts  to  Revise  the  Articles In  1785  commission- 
ers from  Virginia  and  Maryland  met  to  arrange  for  a  joint  use 
of  the  Potomac.     This  meeting  suggested  the  idea  of  a  larger 
meeting  of  representatives  from  all  the  states,  to  form  some 
plan  to  regulate  commerce,  so  that  states  would  be  prevented 
from  injuring  each  other's  trade.     Accordingly,  in  1786  Vir- 
ginia issued  a  call  to  all  the  states  to  send  delegates  to  a  con- 
vention to  consult  about  a  uniform  system  of  duties.     The  con- 
vention met  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  but  as  only  five  states 
were  represented  it  did  nothing  further  than  to  recommend  that 
all  the  states  send  delegates  to  a  convention  to  meet  the  fol- 
lowing year,  to  devise  such  changes  in  the  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration as,  when  agreed  to  by  Congress  and  ratified  by  every 
state,  would  render  them  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  coun- 
try.    Congress  approved  this  idea.     The  grave  defects  of  the 
Articles  had  become   evident  to   every  one.     Before  the   ap- 
pointed time  for   the   convention  twelve  states   had   chosen 
delegates. 

338.  The  Constitutional  Convention.  —  The  convention  met 
in  Philadelphia  on  May  14,  1787.     Judged  by  the  results  of  its 
work,  no  more  important  meeting  was  ever  held  in  the  history 
of  the  world.     It  numbered  fifty-five  members,1  representing 
every  state   except    Rhode  Island.     Washington  was  chosen 
presiding  officer.     It  was  agreed  that  each  state  should  have 
one  vote,  and  that  the  proceedings  should  be  secret,  lest  any 
disagreement  in  the  convention  becoming  known  should  pre- 
vent the  acceptance  of  the  result  by  the  people.     The  conven- 
tion had  been  called  to  revise  the  old  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion, but  so  many  changes  were  found  necessary  that  it  was 
soon  decided  to  prepare  an  entirely  new  constitution.     Here 

l  Among  the  delegates  were  George  Washington  and  James  Madison,  of  Virginia ; 
Hamilton,  of  New  York ;  Franklin,  of  Pennsylvania ;  Rutledge  and  the  Pinckneys. 
of  South  Carolina. 


BENJAMIN    FRANKLIN. 


THE    CONFEDERATION.  219 

many  difficulties  were  encountered  from  the  opposing  views  of 
members.  The  small  states  demanded  that  all  the  states 
should  have  equal  power  in  the  new  government.  The  large 
states  argued  that  their  greater  population  and  wealth  entitled 
them  to  a  larger  representation.  It  was  finally  agreed  that 
the  new  Congress  should  be  composed  of  two  houses,  in  one 
of  which  all  the  states  should  have  equal  representation,  while 
in  the  other  representation  should  depend  on  population.  How 
to  count  the  slaves  in  determining  the  representation  of  a  state, 
and  whether  the  importation  of  slaves  should  be  forbidden  were 
also  vexed  questions.  At  almost  every  step  compromises  had  to 
be  made.  Several  times  the  convention  seemed  utterly  unable  to 
agree.  On  one  such  occasion  it  was  proposed  by  Franklin  that 
thereafter  the  daily  sessions  be  opened  with  prayer  for  divine 
guidance.  After  four  months  of  labor  the  convention  finished  its 
work,  and  the  proposed  constitution  was  signed  by  the  delegates. 

339.  Adoption  of  the  Constitution.  —  The  constitution  pro- 
vided that  when  the  conventions  of  as  many  as  nine  states 
should  have  ratified  it,  it  should  go  into  effect  between  the 
states  so  ratifying.  Accordingly,  the  proposed  constitution, 
having  been  first  submitted  to  Congress,  was  sent  to  the  people 
of  the  different  states  for  their  approval  or  rejection.  Six 
states,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Georgia,  Connec- 
ticut, and  Maryland,  gave  their  assent  unanimously,  or  with 
little  opposition.  In  Massachusetts,  South  Carolina,  New 
Hampshire,  Virginia,  and  New  York,  there  was  a  strong  oppo- 
sition and  a  hard  fight.  These  states  finally  gave  their  assent, 
but  at  the  same  time  insisted  upon  the  adoption  of  certain 
amendments  defining  more  particularly  the  rights  of  the  states 
and  of  the  people.  New  York  and  Virginia  in  their  acts  of 
ratification  declared  that  the  powers  of  government  surrendered 
by  them  might  be  reassumed  whenever  they  were  used  to  the 
injury  or  oppression  of  the  people.  By  the  end  of  July,  1788, 


22O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  assent  of  the  eleven  states  above  mentioned  had  been 
given,  and  Congress  set  March  4,  1789,  as  the  day  when  the 
new  government  should  go  into  operation.  The  convention  of 
North  Carolina  refused  to  adopt  the  constitution  until  a  bill  of 
rights  should  be  added,  and  the  people  of  Rhode  Island  over- 
whelmingly rejected  it.  Thus  these  two  states  saw  their  eleven 
sisters  withdraw  from  the  Union  under  the  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration, and  set  up  a  new  government.1 

340.  Nature  of  the  New  Government.  —  The  Articles  of 
Confederation  established  only  one  department  of  government, 
—  the  legislative.  They  provided  no  courts  to  interpret  the  laws 
of  Congress,  and  no  executive  officers  to  enforce  them.     Under 
the  new  constitution  there  were  to  be  three  separate  and  dis- 
tinct departments,  — legislative,  executive,  and  judicial,  just  as 
already  existed  in  the  state  governments.     At  the  same  time  a 
new  and  strange  idea  was  adopted  —  to  limit  the  powers  of  the 
federal  government  to  certain    specified  spheres,  but   within 
those  spheres  to  permit  it  to  act  directly  upon  the  people  (in- 
stead of  upon  the  states),  and  to  be  supreme.     All  powers  not 
surrendered  to  the  federal  government  by  the  states  were  to 
be  retained  by  them.2     This  constitution,  with  few  changes,  has 
continued  in  force  to  the  present  time.     Its  leading  features  are 
as  follows : 

341.  The  Legislative  Department.  —  Congress  consists  of 
two   houses,  the   Senate  and  the  House  of    Representatives. 
In  the  Senate  each  state  is  entitled  to  two  members,  while  in 
the  House  the  representation  of  any  state  depends  upon  its 

1  After   maintaining  for   a  time   a   separate   and   independent   position,   North 
Carolina  joined  the  new  Union  November,  1789,  and  Rhode  Island  in  May,  1790. 
Rhode  Island,  like  Virginia  and  New  York,  accompanied  her  final  ratification  by  a 
declaration  that  all  the  powers  of  government  might  be  reassumed  by  her  people. 

2  Among  these  powers  surrendered  to  the  general  government  by  the  states  were 
the  powers  to  levy  a  tariff  and  to  coin  money,  which  had  been  the  source  of  so  much 
dissatisfaction  under  the  Articles. 


THE    CONFEDERATION.  221 

population  (in  which  at  first  all  free  persons  and  three-fifths 
of  the  slaves  were  counted).  Senators  are  chosen  by  the 
state  Legislatures,  and  serve  six .  years.  Representatives  are 
elected  directly  by  the  people,  and  serve  two  years.  Congress 
is  given  the  power  to  lay  taxes,  borrow  money,  regulate 
commerce,  coin  money,  establish  post-offices,  declare  war,  raise 
and  support  armies  and  navies.  The  states  are  forbidden  to 
do  any  of  these  things  except  to  tax  themselves,  borrow  money, 
and  use  their  own  militia.  To  become  a  law  a  bill  must  pass 
both  houses  of  Congress  and  be  signed  by  the  president. 
Should  the  president  veto  a  bill  within  ten  days  after  its 
passage,  it  must  be  again  passed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  before  it 
can  become  a  law.  Treaties  made  by  the  president  must  be 
approved  by  the  Senate. 

342.  The  Executive  Department.  —  The  president  of  the 
United  States  is  chosen  for  a  term  of  four  years  by  electors, 
who  are  appointed  from  each  state  in  such  manner  as  the  legis- 
lature thereof  may  direct.     (In  all  the  states,  at  present,  these 
electors  are  elected  by  the  people.)     The  president  is  given 
power  to  enforce  the  laws  of  Congress.     He  is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  appoints  most  of  the  public 
officers.     With  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  he  makes  treaties 
with  foreign  nations.     If  the  president  should  fail  to  perform 
his  duty  he  may  be  impeached  (accused)  by   the    House   of 
Representatives,  and  tried  and  removed  by  the  Senate.    Should 
he  die,  resign,  be  removed,  or  become  unable  to  act,  the  vice- 
president  takes  his  place.     Otherwise  the  vice-president  pre- 
sides over  the  Senate,  but  cannot  vote  in  that  body  except  in 
case  of  a  tie. 

343.  The  Judicial  Department. — To  interpret  the  laws  of 
Congress  the  constitution  provides  one    Supreme   Court  and 
such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  may  establish.     The  judges 
are  appointed  by  the  president  with  the  approval  of  the  Senate, 


222  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  hold  their  office  for  life,  unless  removed  for  misconduct. 
No  cases  can  be  tried  before  a  United  States  court  except : 
(i)  Those  involving  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  or  the 
laws  or  treaties  of  Congress ;  (2)  those  affecting  ambassadors 
or  foreigners;  (3)  controversies  to  which  either  the  United 
States  or  a  state  is  a  party ;  (4)  controversies  between  citizens 
of  different  states. 

344.  Other  Requirements.  —  Each  state  shall  allow  citizens 
of  other  states  equal  privileges  with  its  own.     Slaves  escaping 
into  another  state  shall  be  returned  to  their  owners  (void  by 
Thirteenth  Amendment).     Congress  is  given  power  to  govern 
the  territories.      The  United  States  shall  see  that  each  state 
maintains  a  republican  form  of  government.     The  Constitution 
may  be  changed  with  the  consent  of  three-fourths  of  the  states. 

345.  Summary  of  Period  of  Articles  of  Confederation.  —  With  the 
assent  of  Maryland,  in  1781,  the  Articles  of  Confederation  went  into  effect. 
The  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain  was  concluded  in  1783.     The  North- 
west Territory  was  ceded  to  Congress  by  Virginia  and  other  states  claim- 
ing it,  and  in  1787  Congress  adopted  the  famous  "  Ordinance  "  for  its  gov- 
ernment.    The  inhabitants  of  eastern  Tennessee  set  up  a  separate  state 
government,  which  they  maintained  for  a  few  years,  until  North  Carolina 
reestablished  her  authority  over  them.     Through  lack  of  a  financial  system, 
quarrels  between  states,  and  the  weakness  of  Congress,  the  country  was 
drifting  towards  anarchy.     In  1787  delegates  from  twelve  states  met  in 
Philadelphia  to  revise  the  Articles.     The  new  constitution   prepared  by 
them  went  into  effect  in  1789,  over  eleven  states  that  had  then  ratified  it. 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  joined  the  new  Union  within  the  next 
two  years. 

346.  Thought  Questions.  —  How  did  Maryland  delay  the  adoption  of 
the  Articles  of  Confederation?     How  did  her  action  result  in  a  closer 
union  of  the  states  at  last  ?     How  many  territories  in  the  United  States 
to-day  ?     How  are  the  governors  of  these  territories  chosen  ?     Where  was 
the  State  of  Franklin,  and  when  did  it  exist  ?     Why  should  the  New  Eng- 
landers  favor  the  treaty  with  Spain  ?     Why  should  the  South  and  West 
oppose  it  ?     Why  was  the  Continental  money  of  so  little  value  ?     \Vhy  is 
our  paper  money  now  worth  as  much  as  gold  ?     Mention  some  of  the  com- 


THE    CONFEDERATION.  223 

promises  in  the  constitutional  convention.  Was  the  action  of  the  eleven 
states  that  withdrew  from  the  Union  under  the  Confederation  a  "secession"? 
What  was  the  justification  of  their  action  ?  Mention  three  important 
differences  between  the  government  under  the  Articles  and  that  under  the 
Constitution. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (THE  CONFEDERATION). 

f  The  first  Continental  Congress. 

326.  Authority  of  Congress.  •{  _  .    . 

^  Congress  during  the  war. 

f  Framing  of  the  Articles. 

327,  328.  Articles  of  Confederation.  <j   Delay  in  ratification. 

[  Nature  of  the  Articles. 
f  Boundaries. 

329.  Treaty  with  England.  -\   Disbanding  of  the  army. 

[  Departure  of  British  troops. 
f  Claims  of  different  states. 

330.  The  Northwest  Territory.  <j   Maryland's  proposition. 

[  Gift  of  the  territory. 

_.  ,  f  Its  provisions. 

331.  The  Ordinance  of  1787.  J 


Its  effects. 
Claims  of  the  states. 

332.  The  Southwest.  <j   The  State  of  Franklin. 

Grants  by  the  states. 

C  Importance  to.  farmers  of  the  West. 

333.  The  Mississippi  River.  <    Proposed  treaty  with  Spain. 

[_  Sectional  feeling. 
C  Funds  for  the  war. 

!   Continental  currency. 

334.  Finances.    K  _     . 

I    Foreign  coins. 

[  First  coinage  by  Congress. 

f  Quarrels  between  states. 
33  5>  33^-  Difficulties  of  the  Government.    <{   Shays 's  rebellion. 

[  Weakness  of  Congress. 

337.  Efforts  to  revise    f  The  Virginia  and  Maryland  Commission. 

the  Articles.      \  The  Annapolis  Convention. 

f  Meeting  of  the  Philadelphia  convention. 

338.  Framing  of  the 

/-,       i-I  A-          ~\    Proceedings  of  the  convention. 
Constitution.     ]   „,, 

L  The  work  completed. 


224 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


340. 


341.  Legislative  Department. 


Conditions  for  adoption. 
339.  Adoption  of  the  Constitution.  ^   Action  of  the  states. 

North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island. 

f  Compared  with  the  Articles. 
Nature  of  the  Constitution.   |  The  Rew  .^ 

Senators. 
Representatives. 
Powers  of  Congress. 
Method  of  passing  laws. 
Election  of  president. 

342.  Executive  Department.  <{    Powers  of  president. 

Vice-president. 
(  United  States  courts. 

343.  Judicial  Department.  ^   Judges  of  United  States  courts. 

[  Jurisdiction  of  United  States  courts. 
344-  Other  Requirements. 


President's  Flag 


UNITED  STATES  COAT  0¥  ARMS 


NATIONAL   ENSIGN 


Revenue  Ensign 


Yacht  Ensign 


THE  UNION  OF  THE  STATES.  — DEVELOPMENT.— 
DIVISION. 


PERIOD     OF     DEVELOPMENT. 

(WASHINGTON  TO  J.   Q.  ADAMS.) 

WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
Two  Terms:   1789-1797. 

347.   Services  and  Character  of  the  First  President.  — 

When  the  time  came  to  elect  a 'president,  under  the  new  Constitu- 
tion, all   eyes  were  turned  to  George   Washington.     Born  in 


Virginia,  February  22,  1732,  Washington  was  descended  from 
one  of  the  Cavalier  families  that  had  emigrated  from  England 
to  Virginia  during  the  period  of  Cromwell's  rule.  He  received 


226  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

a  fair  English  education,  and  became  a  surveyor.  The  hard- 
ships and  dangers  of  his  work  on  the  wilderness  frontier  devel- 
oped his  powers,  while  the  ability  and  integrity  he  displayed 
attracted  public  notice.  By  the  death  of  an  elder  brother,  he 
came  into  possession  of  the  estate  of  Mount  Vernon,  on  the 
Potomac,  not  far  from  the  present  city  of  Washington.  He 
married  Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  a  rich  widow.  His  services  in 
the  French  and  Indian  War  first  brought  him  into  prominence 
as  a  soldier.  He  was  member  of  Congress  from  Virginia  when 
chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  united  colonies. 
His  military  genius,  his  incorruptible  patriotism,  his  splendid 
reserve-power  in  the  midst  of  discouragements  entitle  him 
to  be  called  the  "soul  of  the  Revolution."  President  of  the 
convention  of  1787,  his  influence  secured  the  final  adoption  of 
the  Constitution.  He  was  chosen  first  president  of  the  United 
States  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  electors.1 

348.  The  Inauguration.  —  A  few  days  after  he  had  received 
notice  of   his  election,   Washington   left  his  home   at   Mount 
Vernon   in  Virginia,    and  set  out  for  New  York,  which  was 
then  the  capital.     Accompanied  by  friends,  he  traveled  across 
the  country  in  a  coach.     The  journey  occupied  several  days 
and  was  one  grand  triumph.     Feasts,  balls,  and  other  enter- 
tainments in  his  honor  were  given  in  the  various  cities  through 
which  he  passed;  arches  were  built,   streets  were  decorated 
with  flags  and  flowers,  and  everything  was  done  to  show  the 
respect   and  loyalty    the    people   felt  for    "the    savior   of  the 
country."    Though  the  fourth  of  March  was  the  day  set  for  the 
inauguration,  the  slow  methods  of  travel  delayed  the  ceremony 
till  April -30. 

349.  Political  Parties.  —  Those  who  had  supported  the  new 
Constitution  were  called  Federalists,  those  who  had  opposed  it 

1  See  Article  II,  Section  I,  clauses  2  and  3  of  the  Constitution,  and  Article  XII  of 
the  Amendments. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  227 

Anti-Federalists.  The  Federalists  believed  in  a  strong  central 
government  that  should  have  ample  power  to  lay  and  collect 
taxes,  raise  armies,  and  transact  the  business  of  the  govern- 
ment promptly  and  independently.  The  Anti- Federalists  be- 
lieved that  the  people  of  the  states,  through  the  states,  were 
the  source  of  power,  that  government  should  be  instituted 
solely  for  their  convenience  and  service,  and  that  it  must  be 
subject  at  all  times  to  the  voice  of  the  people. 

After  the  Constitution  was  adopted,  the  Federalists  were 
called  "Loose  Constructionists  "  because  they  put  a  very  broad 
construction  on  the  general  provisions  of  the  Constitution  l  and 
claimed  rights  and  powers  of  government  not  specifically 
granted.  The  Anti- Federalists  were  called  "  Strict  Construc- 
tionists "  because  they  insisted  upon  the  letter  of  the  Constitu- 
tion and  denied  to  the  Federal  government  any  powers  except 
those  specifically  granted  by  the  Constitution.  The  Federalists 
were  willing  to  encroach  upon  the  powers  of  the  states.  The 
Anti-Federalists  believed  that  the  general  government  should 
have  only  such  limited  powers  as  should  be  specifically  dele- 
gated to  it  by  the  states. 

350.  The  New  Nation.  —  When  our  country  took  its  first  step 
as  a  nation  it  was  not  rich  nor  powerful.  In  the  thirteen  states, 
the  first  census  showed  a  population  of  not  quite  four  millions.2 
The  area  of  the  country  then  was  not  quite  four  times  that  of 
the  State  of  Texas  to-day.  But  the  patriots  who  had  risked 
"their  lives,  their  fortunes,  and  their  sacred  honor"3  to  create 
the  new  republic  were  more  anxious  to  lead  free  and  manly 
lives  than  they  were  to  be  rich  and  powerful.  They  cared  more 
for  the  character  of  the  nation  that  would  result  from  their  acts 
than  for  its  size,  population,  or  wealth. 

1  See  Constitution,  Article  I,  Section  VIII,  last  Clause. 

2  In  1890,  each  of  two  states  —  Pennsylvania  and  New  York — had  a  greater  pop- 
ulation than  the  whole  country  in  1790. 

8  See  the  concluding  clause  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  §  271. 


228  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

351.  The  First  Cabinet.  —  George  Washington  appreciated 
the  necessity  of  moving  forward  slowly  and  carefully.  He  felt 
keenly  and  bore  bravely  the  responsibility  of  chief  officer  of  the 
nation.  He  leaned  toward  the  new  Federalist  party,  but  called 
to  his  cabinet,  after  Congress  had  authorized  its  formation,1 
able  leaders  from  both  parties.  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  most 
distinguished  opponent  of  the  Federalist  plans  and  theories, 
was  made  secretary  of  state.  Alexander  Hamilton,2  the  leader 

of  the  Federalist  party,  who 
afterwards  added  to  his  re- 
putation as  a  great  party 
leader  the  more  solid  and 
worthy  one  of  a  great  finan- 
cier, was  given  the  treasury 
department.  General  Henry 
Knox,  a  Federalist  of  Massa- 
chusetts, became  secretary 
of  war.  Edmund  Randolph, 
of  Virginia,  who  was  opposed 
to  many  of  the  strong-govern- 
ment theories  of  the  Federal- 


A,exander  Hasten.'  IStS'    WES    *PP™^    attorney 

general.     There  was  oppor- 

tunity in  this  cabinet  for  the  leaders  of  the  opposing  parties  to 
unite  on  plans  and  policies  and  to  harmonize  conflicting  theories 
of  government  ;  but  there  was  opportunity,  also,  for  further  and 
more  vital  disagreement  when  the  theories  were  to  be  put  in 

1  The  president's  cabinet  is  not  named  in  the  constitution.     It  includes  the  heads 
of  departments  who  constitute  the  president's  advisers. 

2  Hamilton  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  Federalist.      This  was  a  publication 
founded  to  aid  in  securing  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.     It  contained  papers 
written  by  Hamilton,  Madison,  and  Jay,  explaining  and  advocating  the  provisions  of 
the  Constitution.     Washington  appointed  Jay  chief-justice  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
Madison  was  a  member  of  the  first  Congress. 

8  After  a  portrait  by  Trumbull,  by  permission,  from  Lodge's  Works  of  Alexander 
Hamilton. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  22Q 

practice  and  the  country  was  to  take  its  course  this  way  or  that. 
One  does  not  need  to  know  much  of  politics  to  know  that  further 
disagreement  was  most  likely ;  and,  indeed,  this  was  the  result. 
The  breach  between  the  factions  was  widened  as  time  went  on. 
Since  the  time  of  Washington,  cabinets  have  been  formed 
usually  from  the  party  that  elects  the  president. 

352.  Financial  Plans. —  The  first  thing  to  be  done  was  to 
raise  money  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  new  government.  For 
this  purpose,  Congress  passed  a  bill  laying  taxes  on  imports.  A 
large  income  was  the  result.  To  the  next  Congress,  Hamilton 
proposed  that  we  should  pay  our  debts.  These  debts  were 
divided  into  three  classes :  (i)  We  owed  abroad  about  $13,000,- 
ooo,  that  we  had  borrowed ;  (2)  We  owed  to  our  own  country- 
men about  $42,500,000  for  debts  contracted  in  furthering  the 
Revolution  ;  (3)  it  was  proposed  that  Congress  pay  the  debts 
incurred  by  the  separate  states  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war, 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  about  $25,000,000.  To  the  pay- 
ment of  the  foreign  debt  all  agreed.  The  proposition  to  pay 
the  immense  debt  due  our  own  countrymen  caused  wide-spread 
speculation  in  the  depreciated  securities  of  these  debts,  and 
there  was  considerable  opposition  to  the  measure ;  in  the  end  it 
was  carried.  Hamilton's  plan  to  assume  the  debts  of  the  states 
caused  a  great  surprise  to  the  country  and  aroused  bitter  oppo- 
sition. But  after  a  hard  struggle  and  some  bargaining,1  this, 
too,  was  carried. 

The  tax  on  imports,  though  it  raised  a  large  revenue,  did  not 
enable  us  to  pay  these  large  debts  as  rapidly  as  was  wished. 

1  The  Northern  states  were,  in  the  main,  in  favor  of  the  Federal  government  pay- 
ing the  state  debts ;  most  of  the  Southern  states  believed  that  each  state  should  be 
responsible  for  its  own  debt.  The  North  wanted  the  new  permanent  capital ;  the 
South  also  wanted  it.  Some  Northern  congressmen  voted  for  a  Southern  location  of 
the  capital  in  exchange  for  some  Southern  votes  in  favor  of  assumption  of  the  state 
debts.  By  this  trade,  Hamilton's  third  proposition  carried,  and  by  it  the  permanent 
capital — Washington  —  was  located  on  the  Potomac. 


230  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

To  supplement  the  tariff  revenue,  a  special  tax,  or  excise,  was 
imposed  on  spirits. 

A  national  bank,  that  was  to  be  the  financial  agent  of  the 
government,  and  a  mint  were  established  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  us  a  national  currency.  With  the  establishment  of  the 
mint,  Jefferson's  system  of  decimal  currency  was  put  in  opera- 
tion and  has  proven  itself  to  be  the  best  in  the  world. 

353.  The  Whiskey  Insurrection. —  The  tax  on  spirits  was 
very  unpopular  with  those  who  had  to  pay  it.    In  western  Penn- 
sylvania, where  there  were  many  stills  and  where  whiskey  was 
used  in  place  of  money,  the  opposition  to  the  tax  was  very 
bitter.     The  people  refused  to  pay  the  tax ;    government  in- 
spectors were  mobbed ;  secret  societies  were  formed  to  resist 
the  execution  of  the  law.    A  call  to  arms  raised  a  band  of  2000 
insurgents  who  marched  to  Pittsburg,  but  committed  no  depre- 
dations.    Washington  called  out  the  militia  of  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  to  put  down  the  insurrec- 
tion ;  15,000  troops  took  the  field.    Hamilton,  who  was  anxious 
to  vindicate  the  government's  power  to  lay  the  tax,   accom- 
panied the  troops.     But  before  this  force  reached  the  scene  of 
the  disturbances,  the  ringleaders  of  the  insurrection  had  fled. 
The  people  made  no  resistance  but  promptly  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance.     A  few  arrests  and  convictions  were  made,  but  the 
president  pardoned  all  who  were  implicated  and  the  trouble 
ceased.     The  government  had  shown  its  power  to  put  down 
any  ordinary  insurrection. 

354.  Extension  of  the  Frontier.  —  New  States. —  Hostile 
tribes  had  long  since  been  driven  away  from  the  sea-board,  and 
east  of  the  Alleghanies  there  was  no  further  trouble  from  them. 
But  adventurous  pioneers  pushed  beyond  the  mountains  into 
the  Western  wilderness ;  and  every  inch  of  their  progress  was 
disputed  by  the  old  enemy.     Daniel  Boone  and  his  followers 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


231 


had  established  themselves  in  territory  that  is  now  included  in 
the  State  of  Kentucky.  Settlements  had  been  made  in  what  is 
now  Cincinnati,  and  at  other  points  along  the  Ohio.  There 
were  so  many  massacres  of  settlers  in  the  Kentucky  territory 
that  it  came  to  be  called  "the  Dark  and  Bloody  Ground." 
Washington,  when  he  became  the  executive  of  the  new  nation, 
determined  to  protect  these  pioneers.  In  his  early  life  he  had 
become  familiar  with  this  Western  country  and  was  interested 


Fort  Washington  (Site  of  Cincinnati). 

in  its  development.  He  was  also  familiar  with  Indian  warfare 
and  knew  its  cruel  and  treacherous  methods.  General  Harmer 
was  sent  against  the  hostile  tribes  of  the  Ohio  region  in  1790; 
but  he  was  surprised  and  defeated.  Next  year,  General  St. 
Claire  was  sent  against  them  with  more  than  two  thousand 
troops.  He  had  been  solemnly  advised  and  warned  by  Wash- 
ington, but  he  allowed  himself  to  be  ambushed  and  his  army 
was  cut  to  pieces.  "Mad  "  Anthony  Wayne,  the  hero  of  Stony 
Point  (§  306),  was  now  put  in  command  of  the  army.  He 
defeated  a  large  force  of  Indians  on  the  Maumee  (1794). 
A  treaty  of  peace  followed  and  this  region  was  cleared  of 
hostile  forces.  With  greater  security,  immigrants  poured  into 


232  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  Ohio  region.  Kentucky  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in 
1792.  Tennessee,  still  further  west  and  south,  came  in  in 
1796.  Vermont  had  been  admitted  in  1791,  so  that  at  the 
close  of  Washington's  second  term,  the  Union  consisted  of 
sixteen  states. 

355.  Foreign  Relations. — The  Federalist  party  was  in  strong 
sympathy  with  the  principles  and  ceremonious  methods  of  the 
English  government ;  the  Republicans 1  took  the  new  republic  of 
the  French  for  their  model,  were  jealous  of  the  rights  of  the 
people,  opposed  all  forms  and  ceremonies,  and  were  afraid  that 
the  national  government  would  assume  too  much  power.  When 
the  French  became  involved  in  a  war  with  England  (1793)  they 
asked  for  assistance  from  their  old  friends  of  the  United  States. 
Citizen  Genet  was  sent  to  this  country  to  solicit  aid.  Many  of 
the  Federalists  sided  with  England,  while  the  Republicans  were 
enthusiastic  for  France.  Washington,  after  carefully  reviewing 
the  situation,  declared  that  the  United  States  would  be  neutral. 
This  decision  disappointed  some  of  the  Federalists,  and  raised 
an  outcry  from  the  Republicans.  Genet,  after  the  declaration 
by  the  president,  appealed  to  the  people.  He  stirred  up  all  the 
ill-feeling  he  could,  and  altogether  acted  in  such  an  insolent 
way  that  he  lost  the  approval  of  many  Republicans  who  had 
formerly  supported  him.  Washington  objected  to  Genet's 
course,  and  he  was  soon  recalled  by  his  government.  But  the 
feelings  that  had  been  aroused  during  the  controversy  made 
the  differences  between  the  two  parties  more  pronounced. 
Later  (in  1795)  the  treaty  with  England,2  secured  by  Chief- 

1  After  the  Constitution  was  adopted,  and  the  government  for  which  it  provided 
was  inaugurated,  the  term  Anti-Federalist  was  no  longer  applicable,  as  all  active  op- 
position to  the  Constitution  soon  ceased.    But  there  was  a  strong  party,  led  chiefly  by 
those  who  had  been  Anti-Federalists,  who  (about  1791)  took  the  name  of  the  "  Repub- 
lican "  party.     This  Republican  party  was  therefore  the  successor  of  the  Anti- Feder- 
alist party. 

2  The  treaty  contained  twenty-eight  sections,  and  held  agreements  upon  many  mat- 
ters of  dispute  between  the  two  countries.     Peace  was  declared  established ;   the 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  233 

Justice  Jay,  was  bitterly  attacked  by  the  Republicans,  and 
could  not  be  warmly  defended  by  the  Federalists.  It  was  not 
satisfactory  to  anybody,  but  Washington  thought  the  terms  the 
best  that  could  be  obtained  at  the  time.  But  party-feeling  ran 
so  high  over  it  that  Washington's  private  character  was  at- 
tacked, and  he  became  so  worried  by  violent  abuse  that  he 
declared  he  had  rather  be  in  his  grave  than  in  the  presidency. 

356-  The  Cotton-Gin.  —  A  government  can  do  nothing  but 
plan  for  the  prosperity  of  the  people ;  the  prosperity  is  won  by 
the  industry  and  good  judgment  of  the  people  themselves.  The 
people  of  the  United  States  have  been  not  only  industrious  and 
thrifty  but  they  have  been  fertile  in  the  invention  of  labor-sav- 
ing, wealth-producing  machinery.  One  of  the  most  useful 
machines  ever  invented  in  our  country  is  the  cotton-gin,  which 
came  into  use  during  Washington's  administration.  Eli  Whit- 
ney, the  inventor,  was  reared  in  Massachusetts.  He  spent  his 
youth  in  going  to  school  and  in  making  walking-canes,  nails, 
and  pins.  But  after  being  graduated  from  Yale  College  he  be- 
came a  teacher  in  the  family  of  General  Nathaniel  Greene,  resid- 
ing near  Savannah.  While  here  his  attention  was  called  to  the 
difficulty  of  separating  the  seed  of  cotton  from  the  fiber.  The 
value  of  cotton  in  making  cloth  was  well  known,  and  many 
planters  grew  patches  of  it;  but  as  one  man  could  separate  but  a 
pound  of  cotton  fiber  a  day, 
the  cloth  was  very  expen- 
sive. Whitney  set  to  work 
to  construct  a  machine  that 
would  do  this  task  of  sepa- 
ration more  rapidly.  The 

result      Was      a       COttOn-gin         Whitney.s  First  Contrivance  for  Pulling  off 

(','  gin  "    is  from   engine)  the  Cotton  seeds. 

Mississippi  was  declared  open  to  both  countries;  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
United  States  was  again  denned ;  the  injury  done  American  commerce  was  to  be 
paid  for,  etc. 


234  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

which  would  separate  a  thousand  pounds  of  fiber  a  day.  A 
new  industry  was  given  to  the  country.  Cotton-growing 
developed  in  the  Southern  states  till  it  became  their  chief 
industry,  and  now  they  furnish  more  cotton  than  the  remainder 
of  the  world.  The  manufacture  of  cotton-cloth  became  an  im- 
portant industry  in  the  New  England  states.  Much  of  our 
cotton  is  shipped  to  England  for  manufacture. 

357.  The  Second  Term.  —  When  Washington  closed  his  first 
term  he  was  again  unanimously  elected  to  the  presidency.     At 
the  end  of  his  second  term  he  was  asked  to  become  a  candidate 
for  a  third  term,  but  refused.     He    kept   the   respect  of  the 
better  elements  of  both  parties  throughout  his  official  life,  but 
he  was  unable  to  harmonize  the  differences  of  the  two  parties 
as  he  had  hoped  to  do. 

358.  Condition  of  the  Country.  —  The  messenger  who  car- 
ried Washington  the  notice  of  his  election  rode  on  horseback. 
The  overland  traveling  of  the  time  was  done  by  means  of  horses. 
In  many  sections  there  were  good  roads  with  inns  at  frequent 
intervals.     Steamboats  had  not  been  invented,  and  there  was 
not  a  mile  of  railway  in  the  United  States.     News  was  carried 
by  mounted  messengers,  and  of  course  required  considerable 
time   to   reach    all    parts    of   the    country.      There    were    no 
telegraph   or    telephone   lines    till    many   years   later.      Oxen 
and  horses  were   used  for    drawing   loads;    mules   were  very 
rare,    the    majority    of    the    people    never    having    seen    one. 
Cast-iron  plows  had  not  been  invented,  and  riding-plows  and 
steam-plows  were  yet   many    years    in  the   future.     A  house- 
wife would  not  have  known  what  to  do  with  a  cooking-stove, 
and  heating-stoves  were  extremely  rare.     Wood  was  used  for 
fuel  everywhere  but  at  the  forge,  where  charcoal  was  substi- 
tuted.    One  of  the  school-books,  the  "  New  England  Primer," 
contained  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  catechism,  hymns,  and  so  on. 
The  pupil  wrote  with  a  quill  pen  made  by  the  teacher,  or  by 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  235 

himself,  if  he  was  skillful  enough.  Slate-pencils  were  whittled 
out  of  "soap"  stone.  Lead  was  sometimes  used  for  marking; 
our  graphite  "  lead "  pencil  was  unknown.  New  York,  the 
first  capital  of  our  country,  had  a  population  of  about  fifty 
thousand  souls. 

359.  Summary.  —  When  the  first  president  took  his  seat  our  population 
was  not  quite  four  millions.    The  first  cabinet  was  formed  by  the  selection  of 
leaders  from  both  parties.     The  financial  policy  proposed  by  Hamilton  gave 
us  money  to  pay  our  debts  and  establish  our  credit  with  other  nations. 
After  the  Indians  were  defeated  emigration  to  the  western  country  increased 
rapidly.     Vermont,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  were  admitted  to  the  Union. 
A  new  treaty  was  made  with  England.     The  cotton-gin  was  invented,  and 
cotton  eventually  became  the  chief  crop  of  the  Southern  states. 

360.  Thought  Questions.  —  Name  the  leading  political  parties  to-day. 
Which  one  corresponds  most  closely  in  its  beliefs  to  the  Federalist  party  ? 
to  the  Anti-Federalist  party  ?     What  was  our  total  public  debt  at  the 
beginning    of    Washington's    administration  ?      Compare    this    with    the 
national  debt  to-day.     What  do  you  think  of  Washington's  refusal  to  aid 
France  ?     Give  reasons  for  your  opinion.     What  do  you  consider  the  most 
important  event  of  this  administration  ?     Why  ? 


JOHN  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
One  Term:    1797-1801. 

361.  Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President.— 
John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  was  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
fearless  of  the  Revolutionary  patriots.  In  all  the  stormy  scenes 
preceding  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  he  played  an 
important  part.  He  was  a  delegate  to  both  of  the  Continental 
Congresses.  He  was  the  chief  debater  in  defending  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  before  Congress.  He  urged  the  selection 
of  Washington  for  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  He  was 
minister  to  France  in  1778.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners who  arranged  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain  after 


236  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

our  independence  was  acknowledged.  In  1785,  Congress  sent 
him  as  minister  to  England,  and  the  king  had  to  receive  as 
our  representative  a  conspicuous  leader  of  the  revolution  that 
had  lost  the  crown  the  American  colonies.  He  was  the  first 
vice-president  and  was  a  member  of  the  Federalist  party. 

362.  Change  of  the  Capital.  —  Adams  was  inaugurated  in 
Philadelphia,  to  which  place  the  capital  had  been  removed  from 
New  York.  But  during  this  administration  the  capital  was 
permanently  located  at  a  site  on  the  Potomac  that  had  been 


chosen  by  Washington.  This  site  was  at  the  time  nothing  but 
a  straggling  settlement,  neighbors  being  as  much  as  a  mile 
apart.  The  District  of  Columbia,  in  which  the  capital  is 
situated,  was  presented  to  the  United  States  by  Virginia  and 
Maryland.  It  was  originally  a  district  ten  miles  square,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Potomac.  The  Virginia  grant,  on  the 
southern  bank,  was  afterwards  returned. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


237 


363.  Renewed  Trouble  with  France.  —  Early  in  Adams's 
administration,  the  trouble  with  France  took  a  more  serious 
turn.  The  Directory,1  feeling  incensed  that  the  United  States 
persisted  in  a  neutral  course,  ordered  our  minister  out  of  the 
country.  The  president  called  an  extra  session  of  Congress, 
and  laid  the  matter  before  this  body.  It  was  decided  to  send 
an  embassy  to  France  to  treat  with  the  Directory  if  any  reason- 
able terms  could  be  made.  Three  envoys,  two  Federalists  and 
one  Republican,  were  sent  to  France.  They  were  coldly 
received,  and  little  attempt  was  made  by  the  Directory  to  reach 


an  agreement.  Finally  the  envoys  were  informed  in  a  rounda- 
bout way  that  if  the  United  States  would  pay  a  certain  sum  of 
money,  a  satisfactory  treaty  would  be  made.  The  envoys 
indignantly  rejected  the  idea  of  paying  money  in  the  way  of  a 
bribe.  One  of  them  2  said  the  United  States  "  would  raise  mil- 

1  France  had  just  gone  through  a  bloody  revolution,  and  had  dethroned  and  be- 
headed her  king.     A  new  constitution  had  been  adopted  which  placed  the  executive 
branch  t>f  the  government  in  the  hands  of  a  Directory  composed  of  five  members. 

2  Charles  Pinckney. 


238  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

lions  for  defense,  but  not  one  cent  for  tribute."  The  two 
Federalist  envoys  were  ordered  out  of  the  country,  but  Elbridge 
Gerry,  who  was  a  Republican,  was  invited  to  remain.  In  a  short 
time,  however,  this  last  envoy  came  home  without  having  effected 
anything.  In  the  meantime,  whenever  opportunity  offered,  the 
French  vessels  captured  American  merchantmen  on  the  high 


seas  and  took  them  home  and  sold  their  cargoes.  These 
things  meant  war,  and  the  United  States  prudently  began  to 
defend  herself.  The  treaties  with  France  were  annulled. 
American  men-of-war  wer.e  directed  to  capture  any  French 
vessel  that  interfered  with  our  commerce.  Steps  were  taken 
to  raise  an  army,  and  Washington  was  made  commander-in- 
chief.1 

1  During  Jackson's  administration  France  paid  #5,000,000  for  the  injury  done  our 
Commerce  at  this  time. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  239 

364.  Death  of  Washington.  —  But  Washington's  services  to 
his  country  were  ended.     He  died  December   14,  1799.     The 
whole    country    went   into    mourning.       England    and    France 
made  public   acknowledgment  of  their  great  respect  for  him. 
One  of  the  resolutions  introduced    in  Congress    said    he   was 
"first  in  war,    first   in   peace,    and   first  in  the  hearts   of  his 
fellow-citizens."     No  one  has  arisen  to  dispute  this  proud  posi- 
tion with  him. 

365.  The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  —  At  the  same  time, 
Congress  made  two  laws  that  ought  never  to  have  been  proposed. 
The  Alien  Law  authorized   the   president  to  banish,  without 
trial,  any  foreigner  whom  he  thought  dangerous  to  the  peace 
and   liberty  of   the    country.     The    Sedition    Law   imposed  a 
heavy  fine  upon    those  who   should  combine  or  conspire   to- 
gether to  oppose  any  measure  of  government,  and  upon  those 
who  should  utter  any  false,  scandalous,  or  malicious  writings 
against  the  authorities  of  our  government. 

366.  The  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions.  —  The  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws  had  been  bitterly  opposed  by  the  Republi- 
cans in  Congress.     It  was  held  that  the  Sedition  Law  was  an 
open  violation  of  the  first  amendment  of  the  Constitution,  and 
that  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  that  was  guaranteed  by  the  Con- 
stitution was  denied  in  the  Alien  Law.     Prosecutions 1  under  the 
Sedition   Law  aroused  the    fiercest    indignation.     The    matter 
was  taken  up  by  the   Legislatures  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 
These  Legislatures  declared  in  resolutions 2  that  the  Union  was 
a  compact  between  the  states,  and  that  beyond  the  well-defined 
powers  delegated  to  it  the  general  government  had  no  right  to 

1  Matthew  Lyon,  of  Vermont,  while  a  candidate  for  Congress,  was  arrested  for 
accusing  the  president  of  having  a  "thirst  for  ridiculous  pomp,  foolish  adulation, 
and  selfish  avarice."     He  was  imprisoned  and  fined.     He  was  elected  to  Congress, 
but  was  obliged  to  serve  his  term  of  imprisonment  before  he  could  take  his  seat. 
Editors  of  several  papers  were  imprisoned  and  fined  for  criticising  the  administration. 

2  Madison  wrote  the  Virginia  Resolutions ;  Jefferson,  the  Kentucky  Resolutions, 


24O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

step ;  that  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  were  an  usurpation  of 
power  in  direct  violation  of  the  Constitution ;  that  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  states  to  interpose  and  maintain  their  rights  against 
the  encroachment  of  the  federal  power.  They  asserted  the 
right  of  the  states  to  judge  of  violations  of  the  Constitution 
and  of  the  mode  and  measure  of  redress.  The  two  laws  caused 
the  defeat  of  the  Federalist  party,  that  had  passed  them  and 
was  active  in  their  execution. 

367.  A  New  Treaty.  —  In  1800,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who 
had  secured  control  of  the  French  government,  received  a  new 
embassy  from    our  country  in  the  most  cordial   manner.     A 
treaty  vowing  "  firm  and  universal  peace  "  between  France  and 
the  United  States  was  soon  effected.     The   question   of  pay- 
ment for  the  confiscation  of  some  of  our  merchant-vessels  was 
left  to  future  negotiation. 

368.  Election  of  a  New  President.  —  The  Constitution  pro- 
vided that  the  electors  should  vote  for  two  candidates  for  presi- 
dent; that  the  candidate  receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes  — 
if  a  majority  —  should  be  president,  and  the  one  receiving  the 
next  highest  number  should  be  vice-president.     In  the  election 
of  a  successor  to  Adams,  Jefferson  and  Burr,  both  belonging  to 
the  same  party,  each  had  a  majority  of  the  votes,  each  receiving 
seventy-three.     It  fell  upon  the   House  of  Representatives  to 
decide  between   them,    each   state    having   one   vote.     In  the 
House,   Jefferson   had   the   greater  number  of  votes  from  the 
beginning,  but  it  was  some  time  before  he  had  a  majority  of 
all  the  votes.     Burr  became  vice-president.     It  was  seen  that 
our  method  of  electing  a  president  was  very  faulty.     The  Con- 
stitution was  amended  (1804),  so  that  electors  vote  for  presi- 
dent and  vice-president  separately. 

369.  Summary.  —  Washington,  on  the  Potomac,  became  the  capital. 
France,  under  the  Directory,  refused  all  reasonable  terms  for  a  treaty.     Prep- 
arations for  war  were  made  by  the  United  States.     When  Napoleon  gained 


THOMAS    JEFFERSON. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  24! 

control  a  treaty  was  made.  Washington  died  December  14,  1799.  The  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws,  granting  arbitrary  powers  to  the  president  and  to  the 
courts,  were  passed  by  the  Federalist  party,  then  in  power.  Indignation 
against  these  laws  led  to  the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions,  which 
declared  the  laws  unconstitutional  and  beyond  the  rightful  power  of  Con- 
gress to  enact.  The  election  of  a  president  was  thrown  into  the  House  ; 
Jefferson  was  elected. 

370.  Thought  Questions.  —  Why  was  not  the  new  capital  placed  farther 
west?  What  provision  in  the  first  amendment  of  the  Constitution  was 
violated  by  the  Sedition  Law?  Which  amendment  was  violated  by  the 
Alien  Law?  In  the  Kentucky  Resolutions,  what  was  meant  by  the  "mode 
and  measure  of  redress  "  for  violations  of  the  Constitution  ?  The  Repub- 
lican electors  of  1800  wanted  Burr  for  vice-president  ;  how  did  it  happen 
that  their  votes  made  a  tie  between  him  and  Jefferson  for  president  ?  What 
do  you  consider  the  most  important  event  of  this  administration?  Why? 


JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
Two  Terms:    1801-1809. 

371.  Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President. — 

Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  had  been  a  prominent  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress.  He  was  the  author  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  University 
of  Virginia.  He  was  governor  of  Virginia  during  part  of  the 
Revolutionary  War.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  to 
Europe,  after  our  independence  was  declared,  to  treat  with 
European  powers.  He  succeeded  Franklin  as  our  minister  to 
France.  He  was  secretary  of  state  in  Washington's  cabinet. 
He  was  vice-president  under  Adams. 

372.  Republican  Simplicity. —  Jefferson  was  the  first  presi- 
dent elected  by  the  Republican  or  Democratic  party.     He  was 
inaugurated  in  the  new  capital  at  Washington.     Previous  in- 
augurations had  been  conducted  with  a  great  deal  of  ceremony. 
But  Jefferson,  one  of  the  most  dignified  of  men,  disapproved  of 
all  forms  and  ceremonies.     Former  presidents  had  held  recep- 


242  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

tions  conducted  with  great  formality ;  but  Jefferson  was  readily 
accessible  to  the  humblest  citizen.  He  received  foreign  minis- 
ters in  a  simple,  matter-of-fact  way  that  was  very  wounding  to 
their  vanity.  He  had  declared  that  all  men  are  created  equal ; 
he  looked  upon  a  public  officer  as  a  public  servant,  and  conse- 
quently he  could  see  no  reason  why  office-holding  should  be 
marked  with  pomp  and  haughty  behavior. 

373.  Trouble  with  the  Pirates  of  the  Mediterranean.— 

Along  the  north  coast  of  Africa  bands  of  Mahometan  pirates 
had  intrenched  themselves.  They  sailed  forth  from  their  ports 
and  harbors  and  captured  the  rich  merchant-vessels  from  other 
countries.  European  nations  had  ceased  resisting  them  by 
force  of  arms,  and  had  adopted  the  method  of  paying  yearly 
tribute  as  a  means  of  buying  protection  for  their  trading-ves- 
sels. American  commerce  and  American  citizens  had  suffered 
very  much  from  them.  Some  of  our  vessels  had  been  captured 
and  confiscated  and  the  seamen  sold  into  slavery.  The  United 
States  had  paid  tribute  for  some  years  for  protection  and  had 
used  large  sums  of  money  in  paying  the  ransom  of  captives. 
Finally,  the  demands  of  the  pirates  grew  to  such  unreasonable 
amounts  that  our  government  refused  to  pay  them.  Then  the 
Pasha  of  Tripoli  declared  war  against  the  United  States.  In 
1803,  a  number  of  our  war-vessels  were  sent  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean to  bring  the  pirates  to  terms.  Our  seamen  showed  great 
skill  and  courage  and  made  our  prowess  respected  by  Euro- 
pean nations.  Lieutenant  Decatur,  particularly,  distinguished 
himself.  The  frigate  Philadelphia  chased  one  of  the  pirate 
vessels  out  of  the  open  sea  to  the  protection  of  the  batteries  of 
Tripoli.  But  in  the  pursuit,  the  Philadelphia  ran  on  a  reef  and 
fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  pirates.  The  officers  of  the  frigate 
were  held  in  captivity.  The  Mahometans  then  manned  the 
vessel  with  their  own  people  and  added  it  to  their  fleet.  Some 
months  'later,  in  a  small  vessel,  with  only  seventy-four  men, 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  243 

Decatur  surprised  the  Philadelphia  at  night  and  killed  or  drove 
away  all  of  the  pirate  crew.  Then  the  vessel  was  set  on 
fire.  As  Decatur  sailed  away  in  the  light  of  the  flames,  he  was 
fired  upon  by  all  the  available  guns  of  the  fort ;  but  not  a  man 
was  killed.  Later,  the  whole  American  fleet  appeared  before 
Tripoli  and  besieged  it.  A  land  force  of  the  Pasha's  enemies 
had  also  been  enlisted  in  the  service  of  America.  Tripoli  could 
not  hope  to  withstand  the  double  attack  and  the  Pasha  sued  for 
peace.  A  treaty  was  made  in  1805  that  gave  us  immunity  from 
these  annoying  and  destructive  depredations.  So  that  a  new 
nation,  from  another  continent,  had  done  more  to  subdue  the 
pirates  than  the  old  European  nations  had  done  with  the  buc- 
caneers at  their  own  doors. 

374.  Ohio  Admitted.  —  In  1802,   some   territory  west   of 
Pennsylvania  was  admitted  into  the  Union   as  the   State  of 
Ohio.     It  was  the  first  state  cut  out  of  the  great  Northwest 
Territory  (§330). 

375.  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  —  When  Jefferson  became 
president  the  Mississippi  was  the  extreme  limit  of  our  country 
on  the  west.     Spain  owned  the  great  territory  of  Louisiana, 
lying  west  of  the   Mississippi.     This  territory  included  New 
Orleans  and  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi ;  and  in  those  days, 
when  wars  were  so  frequent  and  railroads  unheard  of,  the  con- 
trol of  a  great  river  on  the  border  of  a  country  was  vital  to  its 
interests.     We  have  seen  (§  333)  how  the  proposed  surrender 
of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  aroused  the  people  of  the 
West.     In  1800,  the  territory  of  Louisiana  was  ceded  back  to 
France.     President  Jefferson  thought  it  would  be  bad  policy 
to  allow  our  country  to  be  hemmed  in  by  a  powerful  European 
nation.     In  1803,  an  attempt  was  made  to  purchase  a  part  of 
the  territory,  including  New  Orleans  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi.     Napoleon,  who  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Eng- 
land, stood  in  much  greater  need  of  money  than  he  did  of 


244  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Louisiana ;  and  he  offered  to  sell  the  whole  territory.  The 
United  States  was  glad  enough  to  buy.  The  price  paid  was 
fifteen  million  dollars.  For  this  sum,  the  United  States  bought 
a  great  territory  that  extended  from  the  Gulf  to  the  source  of 
the  Mississippi  and  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  territory  gained  contained  nearly  a  million  square 
miles,  and  was  larger  than  the  United  States  itself.  By  this 
purchase,  it  became  possible  for  the  United  States  to  develop 
into  one  of  the  great  nations  of  the  earth. 

376.  The  Lewis  and  Clarke  Expedition.  —  Some  of  this 
vast  territory  is  very  little  known  in  our  own  day ;  ninety  years 
ago  only  its  eastern  border  had  been  explored.     But  the  presi- 
dent resolved  to  gain  all  the  information  that  he  could  about 
the  region.     He  arranged  to  send  an  exploring  expedition  out 
into  the  wild  country.     The  expedition  consisted  of  thirty  men 
commanded  by  Captains   Lewis   and   Clarke.     They  left   St. 
Louis  in  the  fall  of  1803,  and  ascended  the  Missouri  River  in 
boats.     They  were  the  first  white  men  to  see  the  great  falls 
near  the  source.     They  crossed  through  a  pass  in  the  moun- 
tains and  descended  the  Columbia  River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
They  returned  to  civilization  after  an  absence   of  nearly  three 
years,  having  lost  but  one  man.1     Because  of  this  exploration 
the  United  States  claimed  the  Oregon  territory. 

377.  Trouble  with   England:   The   Embargo.  —  The  war 
which  was  going  on  between  England  and   France   involved 
most  of  the  European  countries  and  caused  the  United  States 
considerable  loss  and  annoyance.     Each  nation  had  prohibited 
all  trade  with  the  other,  and  claimed  the  right  to  confiscate  all 
vessels  engaged  in  such  trade.     Of  course,  this  made  American 
vessels  liable  to  seizure  at  any  time  by  one  or  the  other  of  the 
enemies.     Besides  this,  England  claimed  the  right  to  search  all 

1  The  history  of  this  expedition,  printed  by  Harper  &  Brothers,  is  a  very  inter- 
esting, true  story  of  exploration  and  adventure. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  245 

American  vessels  and  take  from  them  any  English  seamen  that 
might  be  found  among  their  crews.  Officers  were,  of  course, 
not  very  careful  to  distinguish  between  English-born  and 
American-born  seamen.  Several  hundred  men  were  seized 
within  a  year.  The  frigate  Chesapeake  refused  to  be  searched 
by  the  officers  of  an  English  man-of-war.  It  was  fired  upon, 
searched,  and  some  of  its  crew  taken  away.  Retaliation  could 
no  longer  be  deferred.  Congress  decreed  that  no  American 
vessels  should  carry  goods  to  foreign  countries.  It  was  hoped 
that  this  embargo  would  materially  injure  both  England  and 
France ;  but  it  hurt  the  United  States  more  than  it  did  either 
of  them.  As  New  England  was  more  heavily  engaged  in 
foreign  commerce  than  any  other  section  of  the  country,  it  suf- 
ferred  the  most.  New  York  City  was  the  chief  port  of  entry  of 
the  country ;  this  embargo  brought  its  commerce  to  a  stop  and 
ruin  stared  it  in  the  face.  After  a  little  more  than  a  year's 
trial  the  act  was  repealed  and  a  new  act  called  the  non-inter- 
course act,  allowing  commerce  with  all  nations  except  England 
and  France,  was  passed. 

378.  Aaron  Burr's  Treason. —  Aaron  Burr,  a  brilliant  but 
unprincipled  man,  had  been  vice-president  during  Jefferson's 
first  term.     He  and  Hamilton  became  bitter  political  rivals. 
The  feeling  on  Burr's  side  grew  to  such  intensity  that  he  chal- 
lenged Hamilton  to  a  duel :   in  the  encounter  he  shot  Hamil- 
ton, who  did  not  attempt  to  harm  Burr.     Afterward  he  was  sus- 
pected of  forming  a  conspiracy  to  detach  some  of  the  south- 
western states  and  form  a  new  nation,  of  which  he  should  be 
the    chief  officer.     He   was    arrested    and   tried   for   treason. 
Though  the  charge  could  not  be  proven  in  the  courts,  the  pub- 
lic believed  it  true  and  he  lost  the  respect  of  every  one. 

379.  Importation  of  Slaves.  —  In  1807,  Congress  forbade 
the  importation  of  slaves  after  the  beginning  of  1808.     Slaves 
were  still  bought  and  sold  in  our  own  territory  ;  but  negroes  cap- 


246' 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


tured  in  Africa  could  no  longer  legally  be  brought  to  the 
United  States  and  sold  into  slavery.  Jefferson  and  the  leaders 
of  both  parties  looked  forward  to  the  gradual  emancipation  of 
slaves  already  on  our  soil. 

380.  The  First  Steamboat.  —  After  the  steam  engine  was 
invented  in  England,  attempts  were  made  in  all  civilized  coun- 
tries to  apply  steam-power  to  boats.  The  first  successful 
steamboat  was  the  creation  of  an  American,  Robert  Fulton. 
His  boat,  called  the  "  Clermont," 
was  a  rude  affair,  with  uncovered 
wheels  on  the  sides,  showing  no 
architectural  beauty,  and  carrying 
sails  to  aid  the  new  power.  The 
people  had  no  faith  in  its  success 
while  it  was  being  built  and 
derisively  named  it  Fulton's  Folly. 
Fulton  announced  that  on  a  certain 
day  he  would  start  from  New  York 
for  Albany,  and  great  crowds  gath- 
ered at  the  wharves  to  see  what 
would  happen.  At  the  appointed 
time,  the  boat  steamed  off  up  the 
river  and  made  the  journey  to  Albany  in  thirty-two  hours. 
Steamboats  multiplied  rapidly  from  this  time,  and  by. their  means 
our  commerce  was  developed  with  enormous  rapidity.  There 
were  no  railroads  in  the  country  at  the  time ;  our  carrying  agents 
were  wagon  trains,  flat  boats  (rude  rafts)  pulled  or  rowed  up 
and  down  the  rivers,  and  sail-boats  on  the  lakes  and  coasts. 
Steamboats  were  put  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers  and 
were  instrumental  in  hastening  greatly  the  development  of  the 
western  country.  With  the  growth  of  railroads  later,  steamboats 
became  less  and  less  useful  in  domestic  commerce,  and  are 
gradually  disappearing  from  our  rivers. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  247 

381.  Summary. —  Jefferson  adopted  simple  manners  and  customs  in 
his  bearing  as  president.    The  pirates  of  the  Mediterranean  were  defeated 
by  our  ships  and  our  commerce  was  freed  from  their  robberies.    The  State 
of  Ohio  was  admitted  into  the  Union.     Louisiana,  a  territory  lying  west  of 
the  Mississippi  and  extending  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  was  purchased  from 
France  at  a  cost  of  $15,000,000.     Lewis  and  Clarke  led  a  party  out  into 
this  wilderness  and  penetrated  through  to  the  western  coast.     They  pre- 
pared a  description  of  the  country  they  had  explored.     Trouble  with  Eng- 
land caused  an  embargo  to  be  laid  upon  our  commerce.    This  proved  to  be 
a  very  unpopular  measure,  and  after  a  little  more  than  a  year  it  was  re- 
pealed.    Aaron  Burr  shot  Alexander  Hamilton  in  a  duel.     Further  impor- 
tation of  slaves  was  prohibited.     Robert  Fulton  invented  the  first  steam- 
boat.   The  administration  is  chiefly  noted  for  the  growing  prosperity  of 
the  country  and  the  great  extension  of  its  limits. 

382.  Thought  Questions.  —  By  what  nation  was  Louisiana  first  claimed  ? 
When  did  it  pass  into  the  hands  of  Spain  ?     Why  was  this  transfer  made  ? 
When  and  to  whom  was  the  second  transfer  made  ?     The  third  ?     Give 
two  reasons  why   the  United  States  was  anxious   to   get   Louisiana.     If 
Louisiana  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  England,  would  the  United  States 
have  been  able  to  acquire  it?     Why  was  the  Embargo  Act  so  unpopular? 
What  does  the  Constitution  say  about  the  importation  of  slaves  ?     What 
do  you  consider  the  most  important  event  of  this  administration  ?  Why? 


MADISON'S    ADMINISTRATION. 
Two  Terms:   1809-1817. 

383.   Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President.— 

Three  members  of  the  Republican  party,  James  Madison  and 
James  Monroe,  both  of  Virginia,  and  De  Witt  Clinton,  of  New 
York,  were  conspicuous  candidates  for  the  presidency;  but 
Jefferson  preferred  Madison,  as  his  views  were  known  to 
harmonize  with  those  of  the  retiring  president;  and  he  was 
the  one  elected.  The  new  president  was  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  statesmen  of  the  day.  He  had  served  his  state 
in  the  state  Legislature,  the  Continental  Congress,  the  constitu- 
tional convention,  and  the  national  Congress.  He  was  secre- 


248 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


tary  of  state  during  Jefferson's  two  terms  as  president.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  of  the  Federalist^  papers,  of  the 
Virginia  Bill  of  Rights,  and  of  the  Virginia  Resolutions 
(§  366),  —  all  enlightened  and  significant  writings,  important  in 
their  times,  and  destined  to  influence  the  future  course  of  the 


James  Madison. 

republic.  He  received  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  electoral 
votes,  but  forty  votes  fewer  than  Jefferson  had  received  for 
his  second  term. 

384.  The  Condition  that  Confronted  the  Administration.  — 
Jefferson  had  been  unable  to  settle  the  disputes  with  England 
and  France;  and  Madison  fell  heir  to  them,  and  was  expected  to 
pursue  the  same  policy  in  regard  to  them.  The  method  of  this 
policy  was  to  avoid  war,  and  to  seek  to  gain  what  we  wanted  by 

1  See  footnote,  p.  228. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  249 

diplomacy  and  commercial  retaliations.  England  had  forbid- 
den our  ships  to  trade  with  France  and  her  allies,  and  France 
had  laid  the  same  prohibition  on  our  commerce  in  regard  to 
England  and  her  allies;  our  Congress  had  sought  to  retaliate, 
first,  by  prohibiting  all  foreign  commerce,  and  afterward  by  lim- 
iting the  prohibition  to  England  and  France.1  The  people  of 
the  northeastern  states  were  largely  engaged  in  commerce,  and 
they  suffered  heavily  under  this  condition  of  things;  it  became 
a  vital  national  matter  to  afford  relief. 

385.  The  Process  of  Relief.  —  Madison,  shortly  after  his  inau- 
guration, entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  British  minister  by 
the  terms  of  which  commercial  relations  with  England  were  to 
be    resumed.     Immediately    upon    the    announcement   of   this 
agreement  more  than  a  thousand  of  our  vessels,  heavily  laden 
with  precious  cargoes,  sailed  from  our  ports  for  foreign  shores. 
But  England  promptly  repudiated  her  minister's  agreement,  and 
reasserted  the  former  provisions  and  restrictions;  and  only  the 
vessels  that  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  get  away  upon  the 
first  announcement  of  the  agreement  were  allowed  to  sail  un- 
molested.    Then  negotiations  were  opened  with  France,  and 
terms  were  offered  us  that  seemed  to  make  some  concessions, 
and  we  accepted.     But  the  result  was  even  worse  than  in  the 
English  agreement,  for  we  gained  no  real  commercial  conces- 
sions, and  we  further  offended  and  alienated  England.     Eng- 
land seemed  to  play  with  us,  and  France  duped  us,  and  the 
result  of  the  negotiations  was  nothing  but  humiliation  and  ex- 
asperation.    A  feeling  was  growing  that  our  interests  and  our 
honor  demanded  stronger  measures. 

386 .  The  Tippecanoe  Incident,  -r-  In  1 8 1 1 ,  through  the  imme- 
diate influence  of  the  great  chief,  Tecumseh,  the  Indian  tribes  of 

1  England  and  France  were  at  war ;  the  United  States  had  declared  herself  neu- 
tral ;  neither  country  was  willing  that  we  should  sell  any  kind  of  supplies  to  the 
other. 


250 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


the  Northwest  united  in  a  great  uprising.  Their  purpose  was  to 
drive  the  white  settlers  from  the  country. 
General  Harrison  was  sent  against  the 
Indians.  He  was  surprised  at  night  in 
his  camp  at  Tippecanoe,  in  the  Territory 
of  Indiana;  but  his  men  rallied  quickly 
and  defeated  the  Indians  with  great 
slaughter.  It  was  believed  that  English 
agents  had  encouraged  the  Indians  with 
arms  and  advice,  and  the  feeling  against 

England  in  the  West  was  intense. 

387.  The  Wrongs  to  our  Seamen.  —  England  continued  to 
seize  seamen  from  our  ships  and  force  them  into  her  own  service. 
During  the  seven  years  preceding  this  time  more  than  four 
thousand  American  seamen   had  been  taken  from  American 
ships  and  pressed  into  British  service.     She  also  continued  to 
seize  our  merchant  vessels  as  prizes,  and  finally  became  so 
insolent  as  to  enter  our  own  waters  and  capture  some  of  our 
ships. 

388.  The  Declaration  of  War.  —  The  time  was  ripe  for  war. 
Years  of  negotiations  and  retaliatory  legislation  had  gained  us 
nothing.     Those  of  our  merchant  vessels  that  ventured  beyond 
our  ports  were  captured  and  confiscated,  and  our  seamen  were 
taken  from  our  ships  and  forced  to  serve  England  in  her  war 
against  France.     The  Tippecanoe  incident,  and  the  discovery 
of  the  Henry  letters,1  purporting  to  reveal  a  plot  of  the  governor 
of  Canada  secretly  to  influence  New  England  to  secede  from 

1  Henry  represented  himself  to  have  lived  a  few  years  in  New  England  as  the 
secret  agent  of  Canada  and  England,  acting  under  instructions  to  note  the  signs  and 
expressions  of  discontent  with  the  administration  of  affairs  in  the  United  States,  and 
of  New  England's  leaning  toward  the  mother-country  ;  and  further,  to  use  his  influence 
in  increasing  the  discontent  and  strengthening  the  regard  for  England.  He  claimed 
to  be  able  to  prove  these  things  by  authentic  official  letters  in  his  possession.  The 
president  paid  him  $50,000  for  the  letters. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  2$  I 

the  Union  and  annex  itself  to  Canada,  caused  great  excitement. 
Those  who  had  been  opposed  to  war  —  including  the  presi- 
dent —  were  obliged,  finally,  to  abandon  their  position  and  join 
the  war  party.  In  a  speech  before  Congress,  Henry  Clay  asked, 
"  What  are  we  not  to  lose  by  peace  ?  Commerce,  character,  a 
nation's  best  treasure,  honor."  War  was  declared  in  June,  1812. 

SECOND    WAR    WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN 
Events  of   1812. 

389.  The  First  Movement  against  Canada. — General  Hull, 
governor  of  Michigan  Territory,  an  old  officer  of  Revolutionary 
fame,  was  instructed  to  invade  Canada.  But  the  general  was 
inefficient  and  cowardly.  He  was  besieged  in  Detroit  by  a  force 

of  British  and  Indians,  and 
without  firing  a  gun  sur- 
rendered Detroit  and  Mich- 
igan (August  1 6),  thereby 
covering  his  name  with 
shame l  and  greatly  discour- 
aging the  American  army. 


390.    The    First   Sea 

Fight At  this  time  the 

American  people  believed 
that  they  could  march  into 
Canada  and  easily  conquer 
it,  but  so  far  as  sea  fighting 
was  concerned  they  had  little 
hope  of  accomplishing  more 
than  a  weak  defense  of  our  coast.  England  was,  at  this  time, 
the  greatest  maritime  power  in  the  world.  She  had  nearly  a 

1  General  Hull  was  afterwards  tried  by  a  court  of  army  officers  on  the  charge  of 
treason,  cowardice,  and  conduct  unbecoming  an  officer,  convicted  on  the  two  latter 
charges,  and  sentenced  to  be  shot.  President  Madison  pardoned  him  in  considera- 
tion of  his  services  in  the  Revolution. 


2$2  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

thousand  ships  manned  with  veteran  crews,  while  the  United 
States  had  but  twelve  men-of-war,  and  some  of  them  had  been 
hastily  and  imperfectly  manned.1  But  in  the  first  decisive 
engagement  we  gained  such  a  signal  victory  that  we  took  heart 
and  prepared  for  greater  enterprises.  One  of  our  warships, 
the  Constitution,  commanded  by  Captain  Isaac  Hull,2  while 
cruising  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  fell  in  with  the  English 
warship  Guerriere.  The  Guerriere,  after  an  engagement  last- 
ing about  an  hour,  surrendered.  The  prisoners  were  taken  to 
Boston,  and  Captain  Hull  and  his  officers  were  feasted  at 
Faneuil  Hall.  The  Constitution,  after  this  victory,  was  named 
Old  Ironsides,  and  became  a  famous  ship.3 

391.  Continuation  of  the  Contest  on  the  Sea.  —  Our  next 
important  victory  was  gained  by  the  sloop-of-\var  Wasp.  This 
vessel,  cruising  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  fell  in  with 
a  fleet  of  English  merchantmen  under  the  convoy  of  the  brig 
Frolic.  The  Frolic  was  much  better  armed  and  equipped 
than  the  Wasp,  but  after  a  desperate  encounter  the  Americans 
boarded  the  English  ship,  and  themselves  hauled  down  the 
English  colors.  The  firing  had  hardly  ceased  when  a  pow- 
erful English  man-of-war  appeared  in  sight,  and  it  at  once 
took  possession  of  the  Wasp  and  its  prizes.  But  the  moral 
effect  of  the  Wasp's  victory  against  such  odds  remained  to 
encourage  our  seamen.  And,  indeed,  the  effect  was  soon  to 
be  seen.  Our  captains  attacked  English  vessels  against  great 
odds ;  and  fights  occurred  between  English  and  American 
vessels  all  along  our  coast,  and  even  in  the  waters  of  the 
Gulf  and  on  the  South  American  coast.  The  Americans  were 

1  "  The  American  navy  consisted  of  twelve  vessels,  the  largest  of  which  were  the 
three  44-gun  frigates  United  States,  Constitution,  and  President.     The  British  navy 
was  composed  of  830  vessels,  of  which  230  were  larger  than  any  of  the  American 
ships."     Prof.  A.  B.  Hart,  "Formation  of  the  Union." 

2  Captain  Hull  was  a  nephew  of  the  General  Hull  who  had  failed  so  signally  at 
Detroit,  and  was  a  brave  and  efficient  officer. 

8  See  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes's  poem,  "  Old  Ironsides." 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


253 


almost  uniformly  successful.  During  the  year  almost  three  hun- 
dred prizes,  carrying  valuable  cargoes  and  manned  by  more  than 
three  thousand  men,  were  captured  by  American  cruisers.  All 
Europe  was  greatly  astonished  at  our  success  in  fighting  the 
"  Mistress  of  the  Seas,"  and  England  herself  was  astounded. 

392.   The  Invasion  of  Canada.  —  While  our  ships  were  so 
fortunately  engaged  upon  the  ocean,  another  invasion  of  Canada 

was  attempted. 
General  Van 
Rensselaer  led 
a  body  of  troops 
to  the  Niagara 
frontier  of  New 
York  and  pre- 
pared to  cross 
over  into  Can- 
ada. Colonel 
Van  Rensselaer 
with  a  thousand 

men  did  cross  over,  and  in  a  sharp  engagement  dislodged  the 
English  from  Queenstown  Heights,  and  took  possession  of  the 
batteries.1  The  English,  however,  sent  for  reinforcements,  and 
as  the  American  militiamen  who  remained  on  the  New  York 
side  would  not  go  over  to  succor  their  gallant  comrades,2  after 
severe  losses,  Colonel  Van  Rensselaer  was  obliged  to  surren- 
der. General  Van  Rensselaer,  disgusted  with  troops  so  inde- 
pendent and  undisciplined,  resigned  command,  and  was  replaced 
with  General  Smyth,  of  Virginia.  General  Smyth  issued  some 
fiery  proclamations,  and  made  a  show  of  a  dashing  campaign ; 

1  Colonel  Van  Rensselaer  was  wounded  as  his  forces  were  trying  to  effect  a  land- 
ing on  the  Canadian  side,  and  the  Americans  were  led  by  subordinate  officers.     Gen- 
eral Brock,  to  whom  General  Hull  had  surrendered  at  Detroit,  was  still  in  command 
of  the  English  troops  in  the  attempt  to  retake  Queenstown. 

2  These  militiamen  insisted  that  they  had  joined  the  army  to  protect  the  American 
border,  but  not  to  invade  foreign  territory. 


254 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


but  in  the  end  he  proved  absolutely  ineffective,  and  was  re- 
moved after  the  fall  had  passed  away  and  nothing  had  been 
accomplished.  The  invasion  of  Canada  was,  so  far,  a  dismal 
failure. 

393.  Madison's  Reelection.  —  The  Federal  party  generally, 
and  the  members  of  it  in  New  England  in  particular,  were 
strongly  opposed  to  the  continuance  of  the  war;  but  the  Re- 
publican party  was  committed  to  it,  and  was  enthusiastic  in 
prosecuting  it.  In  the  fall  of  this  year  Madison  was  renomi- 
nated  by  the  Republicans,  and  was  reflected,  receiving  128  of 
the  217  electoral  votes. 


1813. 

394.  Off  the  Atlantic  Coast.  —  Captain  Lawrence  of  the 
Hornet,  as  a  reward  for  his  victory  over  the  British  brig  Pea- 
cock? was  placed  in  command  of 
the  Chesapeake,  one  of  our  best 
frigates.  The  ship  was  laid  up 
in  Boston  harbor  to  be  repaired 
and  refitted.  The  crew  had  not 
yet  been  trained  and  disciplined 
for  their  duties,  several  of  the 
sailors  were  sick,  and  there  was 
much  dissatisfaction  because  of 
delayed  pay.  But  Lawrence  had 
been  made  over-confident  by  pre- 
vious success,  and  in  this  poor 
condition  he  sailed  out  of  the 

James   Lawrence. 

harbor  and  attacked  the  British 
frigate  Shannon.     A  dreadful  combat  ensued,  in  which   both 

1  The  sloop-of-war  Hornet,  commanded  by  Captain  Lawrence,  and  the  British  brig 
Peacock  had  a  terrific  battle  of  a  few  minutes.  The  Peacock  was  disabled  and  struck 
her  colors.  The  brig  was  damaged  more  than  was  thought  and  sank  suddenly,  en- 
gulfing nine  British  seamen  and  three  Americans. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  2$5 

ships  suffered  severely,  and  in  which  Lawrence  was  mortally 
wounded.  As  the  brave  captain  was  carried  below  decks, 
with  almost  his  last  breath  he  cried  to  his  men,  "  Don't  give 
up  the  ship."  Victory  rested  with  the  English,  however,  and 
the  Shannon,  greatly  damaged,  towed  the  shattered  Chesapeake 
to  Halifax,  where  Lawrence  was  buried  with  military  honors.1 

395.  Plans  for  the  Invasion  of  Canada.  —  The  land  forces 
were  this  year  organized  in  three  divisions  :  The  Army  of  the 
North,  under  General  Hampton,  was  to  march  by  way  of  Lake 
Champlain;  the  Army  of  the  Center,  under  the  command  of 
Major-General  Dearborn,  was  to  take  the  old  Niagara  course  ; 
the  Army  of  the  West,  under  General  Harrison,  was  to  recover 
Michigan  for  us  and  again  invade  Canada  by  the  way  of  De- 
troit.    All  these  armies  were  to  be  aided  by  a  greatly  strength- 
ened navy  of  the  Lakes.     Let  us  examine  the  western  movement 
first. 

396.  The  Raisin  River  Massacre.  —  An  advance  force  of 
General  Harrison's  army  drove  a  body  of  English  and  Indians 
out  of   Frenchtown,   on  the   Raisin   River,  and  captured  the 
town.     (See  map,  p.  253.)      Shortly  afterward  a  large  force 
of  English  and  Indians,  under  Colonel  Proctor,  returned  to 
Frenchtown  and  attacked  the  Americans.     Under  a  pledge  of 
protection,  our  forces  surrendered.     Colonel  Proctor  immedi- 
ately returned  to  Maiden,  and  left  the  prisoners  at  the  mercy 
of  the  savages.     A  large  proportion  of  the  captives  were  killed 
by  tomahawk,  knife,  or  fire,  while  some  of  them  were  dragged 
to  Detroit  and  sold  to  Americans  for  heavy  ransoms. 

397.  Fort    Meigs.  —  General    Harrison,    checked    by    the 
Raisin  River  misfortune,  built   Fort  Meigs  (Fort  Defiance  on 
map)  on  the  Maumee  and  retired  to  it.     Here  he  was  besieged 
by  a  large  force  of  British  and  Indians,  under  General  Proctor 

1  His  remains  now  rest  in  Trinity  churchyard,  New  York  City. 


256  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  Tecumseh.  During  the  siege  a  detachment  of  a  relief 
party  of  Kentuckians  was  cut  off  from  the  main  body  and 
cruelly  massacred  after  the  manner  of  the  Frenchtown  out- 
rage. But  the  attacking  party  was  obliged  to  abandon  the 
siege.  It  retired  to  Maiden.  In  the  latter  part  of  July  Proc- 
tor and  Tecumseh,  with  a  force  twice  as  large  as  before,  re- 
turned to  the  siege.  Failing  to  take  the  fort  and  also  to  entice 
the  Americans  into  the  open,  General  Proctor  took  part  of  his 
force  and  marched  away  to  attack  Fort  Stephenson  (Sandusky 
on  map).  This  fort  was  defended  by  one  hundred  and  sixty 
men,  under  Captain  Crogan,  a  young  man  just  twenty-one.  Upon 
the  demand  to  surrender,  the  gallant  captain  answered  that  he 
would  defend  the  fort  so  long  as  there  was  a  man  alive  within 
its  walls.  Cannonading  producing  no  important  effect,  the  Eng- 
lish made  an  assault  to  carry  the  fort  by  storm.  The  only  gun 
the  fort  contained  had  been  masked  in  position  to  control  the 
trench  that  surrounded  the  walls;  the  attacking  party,  when  it 
came  within  range,  was  almost  entirely  swept  away  by  a  charge 
from  this  single  gun.  After  this  deadly  repulse,  General  Proc- 
tor, fearing  that  he  would  be  attacked  by  a  relief  party  under 
General  Harrison,  again  retired  to  Maiden. 

398.  The  Victory  on  Lake  Erie.  —  In  September  of  this 
year,  Captain  Perry  with  a  fleet  of  nine  vessels,  five  of  which 
he  had  just  built  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Erie,  sailed  out  into  the  lake 
and  engaged  an  English  fleet.  Perry's 
own  ship,  the  Lawrence,  bearing  the 
flag,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship,"  was 
so  cut  to  pieces  that  it  had  to  be 
abandoned.  Perry  had  to  pass  by 
some  of  the  enemy's  ships  in  reach- 
ing the  Niagara  of  his  own  fleet. 
He  carried  his  flag  in  one  hand, 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


257 


and  in  an  open  boat  made  a  near  and  conspicuous  target  for 
the  fire  of  the  enemy.  But  he  made  the  passage  safely.  In 
a  few  minutes  after  Perry 
reached  the  Niagara  the 
fight  was  over,  and  the  brave 
young  captain  returned  to 
the  shattered  Lawrence  to 
receive  the  surrender  of  the 
English  fleet.  Perry's  des- 
patch, describing  the  con- 
test, was  as  brief  and  abso- 
lute in  its  way  as  the  combat 
had  been  in  another  way : 
—  "  We  have  met  the  enemy 
and  they  are  ours  —  two 
ships,  two  brigs,  one  schoon- 
er, and  one  sloop."  1  The  victory  gave  us  control  of  Lake  Erie. 

399.  The  Thames  Victory.  —  General  Harrison  was  quick 
to  seize  the  advantage  of  Perry's  victory;  he  immediately 
crossed  the  lake  to  attack  the  English  and  Indians  at  Maiden. 
He  found  Maiden  deserted,  however,  Proctor  and  Tecumseh 
having  retreated  with  their  forces.  The  Americans  entered  on 
a  hot  pursuit,  and  overtook  the  enemy  at  the  Thames  river. 
In  the  battle  that  ensued  the  British  were  defeated  and  obliged 
to  surrender.  Colonel  Proctor  escaped  by  flight.  Tecumseh 
was  shot  during  the  battle,  and  the  Indians  fled  in  confusion. 
The  western  movement  resulted  in  clearing  Lake  Erie,  recov- 
ering Michigan,  and  administering  a  severe  defeat  to  the  enemy 
on  his  own  soil.  Captain  Perry  and  General  Harrison  became 
the  heroes  of  the  nation. 

l  The  British  had  fewer  vessels,  but  better  ones,  and  more  men,  and  more  but 
smaller  guns.  The  English  captain  was  one  of  Nelson's  veterans,  while  Perry  had 
never  seen  a  naval  engagement  in  his  life. 


2$8  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

400.  The  Movement  in  the  East.  —  The  armies  of  the  Cen- 
ter and  of  the  North  gained  us  no  important  victories.     The 
Army   of   the   Center   embarked   from  Sackett's   Harbor  and 
crossed  the  lake  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  Toronto.     In 
this  movement  they  were  successful,  capturing  the  town,  tak- 
ing many  prisoners  and  securing  much  valuable  property.     The 
army  then  returned  to  Sackett's  Harbor  to  find  that  it  had 
been  attacked  in  their  absence,  but  successfully  defended  by 
the  garrison  left  there.     Late  in  the  next  month  (May)  the 
army  again  crossed  to  the  Canadian  Side  and  took  some  minor 
posts.     But  this  time  they  were  attacked  by  a  large  English 
force,  and  had  enough  to  do  to  defend  themselves.     A  plan 
was  now  formed  to  unite  the  armies  of  the  Center  and  of  the 
North  and  attack  Montreal.     The  Army  of  the  Center  sailed 
down  the  St.  Lawrence  to  make  the  junction.1     The  troops  were 
disembarked  at  St.  Regis,  where  it  was  expected  the  Army  of 
the  North  would  soon  join  them.     But  the  Army  of  the  North 
had  not  moved,  and  the  plan  to  invade  Canada  by  this  route 
had  to  be  abandoned  for  the  season. 

401.  On  the  Sea The  contest  was  waged  upon  the  sea 

more  fiercely,  perhaps,  than  upon  land.     But  on  the  American 
side  there  was  small  equipment  and  little  organization,  our  suc- 
cesses coming  from  the  courage  and  enterprise  of  our  seamen. 
Many  English  merchantmen  were  captured.     But  the  English 
were  quick  to  retaliate,  and  often  went  beyond  just  bounds  in 
trying  to  punish  us.     They  captured  some  of  our  men-of-war. 
Several  defenseless  villages  along  Chesapeake  Bay  were  wan- 
tonly bombarded  and  destroyed.     The  Carolina  and  Virginia 
coasts  were  ravaged   after  the   manner  in  which  freebooters 
would  conduct  a  campaign. 

1  In  order  to  drive  away  the  British  and  Indians,  who  were  gathering  in  bands 
along  the  river  bank  to  obstruct  the  progress  of  the  fleet,  a  force  was  landed,  and  an 
engagement  resulted.  There  were  heavy  losses  on  both  sides  —  about  three  hundred 
on  the  American  side  —  and  nothing  decisive  gained. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  259 

402.  The  Creek  Uprising.  —  The  Creek  Indians,  a  power- 
ful tribe  in  Alabama,  incited  to  violence  by  Tecumseh  and  his 
brother,  the  Prophet,  fell  upon  the  garrison  at  Fort  Mimms  and 
massacred  more  than  four  hundred  people,  sparing  neither  men, 
women,  nor  children.     Immediate  preparations  were  made  by 
the  southwestern  states  to  march  against  the  Indians.     Gen- 
eral Jackson,  with  a  force  of  Tennesseeans,  was  the  first  in  the 
field.     He  drove  the  Indians  before  him,  defeated  them  in  sev- 
eral  hard-fought   battles,  and   burned  one   of   their   villages. 
Finally  the  Indian  forces  concentrated  for  a  great  battle,  and 
the  engagement  took  place  at  Horseshoe  Bend,1  on  a  branch  of 
the  Alabama  River  (January  27,  1814).     The  Indians  suffered  a 
bloody  defeat,  and  surrendered  to  Jackson  on  his  own  terms. 

1814. 

403.  The  Last  Invasion  of   Canada.  —  July  3,  Generals 
Scott  and  Ripley,  leading  the  Army  of  the  Center,  crossed  the 
Niagara  river  into  Canada.     They  met  the  English  force  near 
Chippewa,  and  a  hotly  contested  battle  ensued.     The  English 
were  defeated,  and  retreated  down  the  river  to  Queenstown. 
In  sight  of  Niagara  Falls,  General  Scott,  with  a  division  of  the 
army,  met  the   English  forces  again.     General   Scott,  though 
greatly  outnumbered,  heroically  held  his  position  until  ree'n- 
forced  by  the  other  divisions.     The  fighting  was  desperate  and 
very  destructive  to  both  sides.     The  Americans  distinguished 
themselves  by  daring  generalship  and  dogged  endurance.    The 
English  were  at  last  driven  from  the  field  with  a  loss  of  nearly 
a  thousand  men;  the  American  losses  were  nearly  as  great. 
The  Americans  had  much  the  smaller  force. 

404.  The  Siege  of  Fort  Erie The  Americans  fell  back  to 

Fort  Erie.     Soon  the  English,  reenforced,  moved  forward  and 
invested  the  fort.     About  the  middle  of  September,  after  hav- 

1  Sam  Houston,  afterward  prominent  in  Texas  history,  was  wounded  in  this  battle. 


260 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


R    I     O 


ing  besieged  the  fort  for  more  than  a  month,  the  English,  hear- 
ing that  a  division  of  the  Army  of  the  North  was  on  the  way  to 
the  relief  of  the  fort,  raised  the 
siege  and  retired  to  Fort  George. 
Early  in  November  the  Americans 
burned  Fort  Erie,  and  recrossed 
the  Niagara  and  went  into  winter 
quarters. 

405.  The  Battle  of  Lake 
Champlain.  —  When  the  division 
of  the  Army  of  the  North  was 
taken  to  the  relief  of  Fort  Erie 
about  fifteen  hundred  troops  were 
left  to  hold  Pittsburgh,  on  Lake 
Champlain.  Hearing  of  the  re- 
duced force  at  Plattsburgh,  the 

English  decided  to  seize  the  opportunity  to  get  control  of 
Lake  Champlain.  General  Prevost,  with  fourteen  thousand 
men,  marched  into  New  York  to  attack  Plattsburgh,  while  an 
English  fleet  was  to  attack  Commodore  McDonough's  squadron 
on  the  lake.1  Fighting  began  on  the  lake  first,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans achieved  a  signal  victory ;  several  of  the  English  ships 
surrendered,  but  some  of  the  smaller  ones  fled,  and  escaped 
pursuit  because  our  own  ships  were  too  badly  damaged  to 
chase  them.  In  the  meantime,  the  small  land  force  had  held 
the  fourteen  thousand  English  veterans  in  check,  and  when  the 
news  of  the  American  victory  on  the  lake  reached  the  English 
general  he  retreated  under  the  enthusiastic  charge  of  the  re- 
joicing militia,  leaving  his  sick  and  wounded  and  his  military 
stores,  and  made  haste  to  get  back  into  Canada. 


1  The  English  squadron  had  more  men  and  more  guns.     One  of  McDonough's 
vessels  had  just  been  built,  within  twenty  days,  on  the  bank  of  the  lake. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


26l 


406.  Along  the  Coast.  —  The  blockade  which  had  been  put 
upon  the  southern  coast  the  previous  year  was  now  extended 
to  the  northern  coast.  Several  small  towns  near  the  seaboard 
had  been  captured  and  destroyed.  In  August  a  British  fleet 1 
of  twenty-one  vessels  reached  our  country  and  landed  on  the 
Maryland  shore  an  army  of  five 
thousand  men,  whose  purpose  was 
to  capture  Washington.  A  force  of 
militia  and  marines  was  put  forward 
to  intercept  them,  but  it  was  defeated. 
The  English  suddenly  appeared  at 
the  capitol,  captured  the  president's 
dinner,  which  he  had  just  left,  and 
came  near  capturing  the  president 
himself.  The  capitol  buildings  and 
some  private  residences  were  burned. 
General  Ross,  who  commanded  the 
land  force,  then  marched  his  army 
against  Baltimore,  and  instructed 

the  fleet  to  bombard  Fort  Henry,  Baltimore's  protection 
from  attacks  by  sea.  The  land  force  was  checked  in  its 
march  by  a  determined  body  of  militia,  and  in  a  preliminary 
skirmish  General  Ross  himself  was  killed.  The  British  men- 
of-war  bombarded  Fort  Henry  all  day  and  part  of  the  night 
without  doing  serious  damage.11  The  troops  then  reembarked, 
the  siege  was  raised,  and  the  squadron  sailed  away. 

1  Admiral  Cockburn,  who  commanded  this  fleet,  was  a  vandal  and  a  barbarian. 
He  stood  in  the  speaker's  chair  in  the  capitol,  waved  his  hat  and  gave  the  command 
to  burn  the  building,  which  contained  the  precious  records  of  the  new  nation.     He 
burned  defenseless  villages,  and  even  country  houses  occupied  only  by  women.     See 
Coffin's  "  Building  of  the  Nation." 

2  Francis  S.  Key,  detained  on  board  an   English  man-of-war,  watching  by  the 
flashes  of  the  guns  the  flag  that  waved  on  Fort  Henry,  composed  the  "  Star-Spangled 
Banner." 


262  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

407.  The  Hartford  Convention New  England  had  bit- 
terly opposed  the  methods  pursued  during  the  progress  of  the 
war,  and  now  that  the  blockade  had  extended  to  its  own  ports, 
that  the  capitol  had  been  burned  and  nothing  was  secure,  it 
felt  willing  to  resort  to  strong  measures.     At  the  suggestion  of 
the  Massachusetts  Legislature  a  convention   was   called,  and 
delegates  from   all  the  New  England  states  met  at  Hartford 
December  15.     The  discussions  of  this  convention  have  for- 
ever been  secret,  and  the  official  record  of  its  proceedings  was 
not  made  public  by  the  convention  itself.     The  Republican 
party  openly  charged  the  convention  with  treasonable  purposes, 
with  the  intention  of  advising  the  states  represented  to  secede 
from  the  Union  and  make  peace  with  England,  or  proffer  al- 
legiance to  the  enemy.     If  these  charges  were  without  founda- 
tion they  might  easily  have  been  disproven,  but  no  effort  was 
made  to  refute  them.     The  convention  was  so  condemned  by 
the  people  generally  that  it  ruined  the  Federalist  party.1 

408.  Peace.  —  Both   sides   were  tired  of  the   conflict,  and 
neither  side  had  gained  anything  decisive.     The  treaty  signed 
at  Ghent,  December  24,  was  as  negative  in  its  nature  as  the  war 
had  been.     Nothing  for  which  the  war  had  been  fought  was 
mentioned  in  the  treaty ;  the  two  nations,  tired  of  war,  did  lit- 
tle more  than  agree  to  peace.     However,  the  moral  and  sub- 
stantial victories  were  with  us  in  reality,  although  they  were  not 
formally  mentioned  in  the  terms  of  the  treaty.     Since  that  day 
England  has  never  confiscated  our  ships,  nor  impressed  our 
seamen,  nor  blockaded  our  ports.     We   demonstrated  to  the 
world  that  American    seamen   were    equal    in    every   way   to 
English  seamen,  and  were  better  gunners.     And  we  proved  to 
all  interested  parties  that  any  attempt  to  establish  a  foreign 
power  on  our  territory  would  meet  with  disastrous  failure. 

1  A  representative  was  sent  from  the  convention  to  confer  with  the  president,  but 
peace  was  declared  before  the  conference  could  take  place. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  263 

409.  Battle  of   New  Orleans.  —  Although  the   treaty   of 
peace  had  been  signed  on  December  24,  on  January  8  one  of 
the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war  was  fought  at  New  Orleans. 
We  had  no  telegraph  then,  and  the  news  of  the  treaty  did  not 
reach  us  till  after  the  battle.     The  British  made  great  prepara- 
tions for  the  conquest  of  Louisiana.     A  fleet  of  fifty  vessels, 
carrying  twelve  thousand  men,   under  command    of   General 
Pakenham,  sailed  to  attack  New  Orleans.     General  Jackson, 
who,  after  his  victory  over  the  Creeks,  had  been  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  the  South,  hastened  to  defend  the  city. 
Jackson  had  but  six  thousand  men,  but  they  were  well  pro- 
tected behind  breastworks.     The    English   made   one   assault 
after  another  on  these  extemporized  defenses,  but  they  were 
repulsed  with  heavy  losses  every  time.      Their  general   and 
many  of  their  chief  officers  were  killed.    Their  losses  amounted 
to  twenty-six   hundred  men.     The  Americans  had  but  eight 
men  killed  and  thirteen  wounded. 

410.  Admission   of   States.  —  The    Territory   of   Orleans, 
which  was  the  southern  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  in  1812  under  the  name  of  Louisiana, 
making  the  eighteenth  state.     The  northern  part  of  the  terri- 
tory was  thereafter  called  Missouri.     Indiana,  the  second  state 
from  the  Northwest  Territory,  was  admitted  in  1816. 

411.  Summary.  —  The  new  president   and  his  advisers  were   unable 
to  make  satisfactory  terms  with  England.     England  prohibited  trade  with 
France,  and  France  prohibited  trade  with  England.     The  English  searched 
our  vessels,  captured  our  seamen  and  forced  them  into  the  British  service. 
The  belief  that  the  English  had  instigated  the  Indian  uprising  in  the  North- 
west, and  the  revelations  of  the  Henry  letters,  hastened  the  declaration  of 
war  (June,  1812).     The  contest  is  known  as  the  War  of  1812,  but  it  lasted 
more  than  two  years.     The  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  (signed  at  Ghent 
December  24,  1814)  did  not  settle  the  matters  in  dispute.     But  we  have 
never  since  had  the  same  causes  for  trouble,  and  the  English  have  never 
since  that  time  presumed  to  confiscate  our  merchantmen,  nor  to  capture 
and  impress  our  seamen.     Our  standing  among  nations  of  the  world  was 


264  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

greatly  improved  by  our  success  in  resisting  the  British  on  the  ssa  ;  in 
every  important  engagement,  except  one,  where  the  forces  were  at  all 
evenly  matched,  the  British  ships  had  to  strike  their  colors.  We  showed, 
too,  by  this  war,  that  we  were  able  to  defend  ourselves  against  foreign  inva- 
sion, and  that,  therefore,  the  United  States  was  secure  to  work  out  its  own 
history.  Louisiana  was  admitted  in  1812;  Indiana  in  1816. 

412.  Thought  Questions.  —  Let  the  student  summarize  the  events  of 
the  war  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  War  on  the  northern  frontier. 

2.  War  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

3.  Naval  battles. 

4.  Events  in  the  South. 

In  what  quarter  (as  above  indicated)  were  the  American  arms  most  suc- 
cessful? When  did  the  greatest  number  of  American  failures  occur? 
Can  you  explain  why  ? 

MONROE'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
Two  Terms:  1817-1825. 

413.  Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President. — James 
Monroe,  of  Virginia,  was  a  student  in  William  and  Mary  Col- 
lege when  the  United  States  declared  their  independence  of 
Great  Britain.     He   joined   the  American  forces  and  served 
throughout  the  war,  distinguishing  himself  as  a  soldier  and  an 
officer.     He  was  minister  to  France  under  President  Washing- 
ton.    President  Jefferson  sent  him  to  France  for  the  purchase 
of  Louisiana,  and  afterwards  appointed  him  minister  to  Eng- 
land.    He  served  in  Madison's  cabinet  as  secretary  of  state. 
The  new  president  was  a  kind-hearted  man,  but  firm  and  deter- 
mined   in   purpose.     He   was   modest   in   regard   to  his  own 
talents  and  services,  and  generous  in  admiration  of  the  ability 
and  usefulness  of  others. 

414.  The  President's  Northern  Tour.  —  Soon  after  his  inau- 
guration, Monroe  made  a  tour  through  the  New  England  and 
other  eastern  states.     During  the  war  of  1812,  New  England 
had  become  disaffected  toward  the  government  and  the  Union 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


265 


(§  407),  and  it  was  Monroe's  purpose  to  express  the  presi- 
dent's undiminished  regard  for  this  section,  and  to  incite  the 
loyalty  of  the  people.  He  was  received  everywhere  most  cor- 
dially. The  people  who  had 
favored  the  war,  those  who 
had  opposed  it,  and  the 
radical  Federalist  leaders 
who  had  advocated  such 
extreme  measures  against 
it,  now  that  the  war  was 
ended  and  its  objects  ac- 
complished, united  in  doing 
honor  to  the  nation's  presi- 
dent.1 The  Federalist  party 
went  to  pieces  over  its  course 
in  regard  to  this  war,  and 
our  whole  people  seemed 
to  be  united  in  one  party. 
Indeed,  as  years  went  on, 
the  period  of  Monroe's  administration  began  to  be  called  the 
"  Era  of  Good  Feeling,"  so  cordial  and  harmonious  was  the 
support  given  the  president.  Only  one  electoral  vote  was  cast 
against  him  on  his  election  to  the  second  term. 

415.  Extension  of  Territory :  the  Serainole  War.  —  At  this 
time  Florida  belonged  to  Spain  (§  323),  and  on  its  territory 
there  were  some  Spanish  forts  garrisoned  with  Spanish  soldiers. 
The  population,  however,  was  made  up  of  Seminole  Indians, 
runaway  slaves,  and  a  few  English  adventurers.  The  Sem- 
inoles  formed  the  greater  part  of  this  mixed  population. 
These  people  made  frequent  raids  across  the  border  into 


1  On  formal  occasions  Monroe  appeared  clad  in  his  Revolutionary  uniform,  and 
completely  won  the  hearts  of  the  scarred  veterans  of  our  early  struggle  for  independ- 


266  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Georgia,  destroying  property,  stealing  slaves,  and  murdering 
settlers.  When  pursued  into  Florida,  these  marauding  bands 
claimed  the  protection  of  neutral  territory,  or  fled  to  the  secret 
recesses  of  the  everglades  beyond  pursuit.  These  raids  finally 
became  so  frequent  and  so  exasperating  that  General  Jackson, 
the  New  Orleans  hero,  was  sent  to  the  front  to  teach  the  Sem- 
inoles  and  their  allies  a  lesson.  Jackson  dealt  with  the  matter 
after  his  usual  summary  manner.  He  drove  the  Indians  out 
of  Georgia,  and  followed  them  into  Florida,  where  they  scat- 
tered into  the  swamps  to  save  themselves.  He  captured  and 
destroyed  the  Seminoles'  chief  village,  took  forcible  possession 
of  two  or  three  principal  Spanish  forts,  and  executed  two 
British  subjects  who  had  aided  the  Indians. 

Jackson's  course  caused  a  heated  controversy  in  Congress, 
where  he  was  accused  of  exceeding  his  instructions  and  of 
violating  the  law  of  nations.  The  administration,  though  em- 
barrassed by  his  actions,  defended  his  course,  and  Congress 
refused  to  censure  him.  Spain  finally  decided  to  sell  us  the 
territory  of  Florida.  It  was  bought,  in  1819,  for  five  million 
dollars.  As  one  of  the  conditions  of  this  purchase  we  agreed 
that  the  Sabine  River  should  form  our  southwestern  boundary. 
By  this  agreement  we  relinquished  in  Spain's  favor  all  claims  to 
Texas.1 

The  states  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama  were  formerly  part 
of  the  territory  claimed  by  Georgia.  This  territory  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States  in  1802  (§  332).  Mississippi  became 
a  state  in  1817;  Alabama,  in  1819.  Illinois,  the  third  state 
from  the  great  Northwest  Territory,  was  admitted  in  1818. 

416.  Slavery. — In  1818,  the  Union  consisted  of  twenty- 
two  states,  half  "free"  and  half  "slave,"  with  the  Ohio  River 
and  the  south  line  of  Pennsylvania  as  the  boundary  between 
them.  Circumstances  had  made  it  possible  that  a  new  South- 
ern territory  could  be  put  forward  for  admission  directly  after 
the  admission  of  each  new  Northern  state,  so  that  the  balance 

l  The  United  States  had  claimed  Texas  as  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  267 

had  been  preserved.  There  had  been  much  discussion  of 
slavery  privately,  in  the  public  prints  and  on  public  platforms. 
Northern  sentiment  was  divided.  There  was  a  small  faction 
that,  on  moral  grounds,  insisted  on  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
A  greater  faction  feared  the  growth  and  final  preponderance 
of  the  slave-holding  population.  A  third  faction,  from  the 
nature  of  the  terms  of  the  original  union  of  states  and  the 
reading  of  the  Constitution,  thought  it  illegal  and  dishonorable 
to  restrict  slavery  beyond  the  original  provisions  and  prohibi- 
tions of  the  Constitution.  In  the  South,  there  were  many 
people  who  were  opposed  to  slavery  on  moral  grounds  (Jeffer- 
son, Clay,  and  other  great  leaders  among  them),  and  who 
hoped  for  the  gradual  extinction  of  slavery;1  but  the  major 
part  of  the  population,  through  custom  or  self-interest,2  had 
come  to  think  the  mild  form  of  slavery  that  existed  in  the 
South  best  for  both  negroes  and  whites.  And  it  was  seen  by 
sensible  people  everywhere  that  the  immediate  abolition  of 
slavery  meant  ruin  to  the  South ;  it  would  rob  both  races  of 
the  means  of  living. 

417.  The  Missouri  Compromise.  —  When  a  territorial  gov- 
ernment was  proposed  for  Missouri  (1819),  the  controversy 
broke  out  in  intense  form.  The  dividing  line  between  the 
"free"  and  the  "slave"  states  —  the  Ohio  River  —  was  lost  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi.  Should  Missouri  be  "  free  " 

1  Jefferson's  plan  for  the  gradual  extinction  of  slavery  was  to  declare  all  negroes 
born  after  a  certain  date  free,  to  keep  these  free-born  negroes  with  their  parents  until 
able  to  maintain  themselves,  and  then  to  ship  them  to  some  friendly  asylum  outside 
of  the  United  States,  bought  and  prepared  for  the  purpose.     With  this  plan,  slavery 
would  perish  with  the  death  of  the  negroes  who  were  still  in  bondage  on  the  date  set. 

2  In  the  beginning  all  sections  without  distinction  bought  and  sold  slaves,  and  no 
section  thought  it  wrong  (§§91,  139,  209).     The  negroes  were  at  first  used  chiefly  as 
domestic  servants ;  but,  with  the  development   of  cotton  and  rice-growing  in  the 
Southern  states,  they  became  almost  indispensable  in  the  fields  of  this  section ;  so 
that  their  number  grew  very  fast  at  the  South  and  very  slowly  at  the  North.    After 
a  while  there  came  a  day  when  the  liberation  of  slaves  meant  but  slight  loss  to  the 
North  and  ruin  to  the  South. 


268  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

or  "  slave  "  ?  It  lay  for  the  most  part  north  of  the  Ohio  line, 
but  it  had  been  settled  chiefly  by  slaveholders,  and  its  own 
voice  was  for  slaveholding.  In  Congress  the  advocates  of 
"free"  territory  at  first  gained  "the  advantage;  but  in  the  end 
Missouri  was  organized  without  any  restrictions  as  to  slavery. 
When  the  bill  to  admit  Missouri  as  a  state  came  up  next  year 
(1820),  the  contest  was  renewed.  Maine1  was  asking  for  ad- 
mission as  a  free  state  at  the  same  time.  Those  who  favored 
the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  state  joined  the  two  states 
in  one  bill,  so  that  they  should  succeed  or  fail  together.  But 
there  could  be  no  quarrel  over  Maine,  as  it  was  wholly  free, 
and  the  real  battle  was  fought  over  Missouri.  The  Northern 
states  insisted  that  Congress  had  the  right  to  prohibit  slavery 
in  the  states  it  admitted  to  the  Union,  and  should  exercise  the 
right ;  the  Southern  people  urged  that  each  state  should  deter- 
mine its  own  domestic  concerns,  and  that  Missouri  should  be 
allowed  to  say  whether  it  should  enter  as  a  free  or  as  a  slave 
state.  The  debate  that  followed  was  a  long  and  able  one,  and 
sometimes  reached  a  very  angry  tone.  Through  the  eloquence 
and  influence  of  Henry  Clay,  a  compromise  was  effected.  By 
its  terms  Missouri  entered  as  a  slave  state  (1821),  but  with 
the  provision  that  any  state  afterward  formed  out  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase  lying  north  of  36°  30'  —  the  southern 
boundary  of  Missouri — must  enter  as  a  free  state;  any  state 
formed  out  of  the  purchase  south  of  this  line  might  decide  for 
itself  whether  it  would  be  free  or  slave.  By  a  separate  bill 
Maine  was  admitted  as  a  free  state  the  day  after  the  Missouri 
Compromise  bill  was  passed. 

418.  Internal  Improvements.  —  In  this  day,  railroads  were 
unknown,  and  overland  commerce  was  carried  on  solely  by 
wagons  drawn  by  draught  animals.  With  such  slow  means  of 
transportation,  distress  might  exist  in  one  part  of  the  country 

l  Up  to  this  time,  Maine  had  been  Massachusetts  territory. 


HENRY   CLAY. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  269 

while  another  section  had  more  food  products  than  could  be 
used  or  sold.  Anything  that  would  lead  to  a  quicker  and  more 
general  distribution  of  supplies  would,  of  course,  greatly  aid  the 
development  of  the  country.  In  1817,  through  the  influence  of 
Governor  Clinton  and  by  the  authority  of  the  state  legislature, 
work  was  begun  on  the  Erie  Canal.  It  extended  from  the 
eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie  to  Albany  on  the  Hudson,  and  when 
completed  (1825)  was  363  miles  long.  It  afforded  an  extreme- 
ly cheap  means  of  transportation,  and  assisted  greatly  in  the 
development  of  the  interior  of  New  York,  and  even  of  Ohio 
and  the  western  country.  With  its  help,  New  York  City 
jumped  into  the  front  rank  of  commercial  cities,  and  has  ever 
since  been  the  great  commercial  center  of  the  Union. 

419.  The  Cumberland  Road.  —  This  highway,  begun  in  a 
small  town  in   Maryland,  supported  at  first   by  state    funds, 
grew  in  importance  until  it  became  a  subject  of  national  dis- 
cussion and  of  national  aid.     It  was  fostered  and  encouraged 
by  the  powerful  Clay  and  an  enthusiastic  party.     It  was  finally 
extended,  eighty  feet  wide,  paved  with  hard  stone,  "  a  noble 
turnpike,"  to  Wheeling.     It  proved  highly  useful  in  developing 
the  West    and  in  adding  to   the  wealth  of   the    East.     Clay 
planned  to  extend   it  down  the  Ohio  to  the  Mississippi.     A 
southern  road  was  projected  from  Washington  to  New  Orleans. 

420.  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  —  Several  of  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies in   South  America  revolted,  and   set  up  governments  of 
their  own.     The  United  States  was  the  first  nation  to  recog- 
nize their  independence.     Later,  France  gave  notice  that  she 
would  call  a   congress   of  the  great  powers   to   consider  the 
revolt  of  these  colonies.      Of   course,  the  plan  would  be    to 
reduce  these  revolted  colonies  to  European  dependence  by  put- 
ting over  them  kings  sent  from  the  royal  families  of  Europe. 
In  opposition  to  this  purpose,  President  Monroe  sent  to  Con- 
gress (1823)  a  message  that  declared,  "  That  we  should  con- 


2/0  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

sider  any  attempt  on  their  part  (the  part  of  the  European 
powers)  to  extend  their  system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemi- 
sphere as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety,"  and  further  that, 
"  The  American  continents,  by  the  free  and  independent  posi- 
tion which  they  have  assumed  and  maintained,  are  henceforth 
not  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any 
European  powers."  "In  these  two  propositions  consists  the 
celebrated  '  Monroe  Doctrine,'  a  doctrine,  we  may  add,  which 
our  later  statesmen  have  developed  at  their  convenience,  link- 
ing it  inseparably  with  the  name  of  the  president  who  thus 
pronounced  it,  and  seeing  in  it  what  many  hundred  millions  of 
American  freemen,  in  the  long  vista  of  coming  centuries,  will 
still  better  recognize,  if  free  institutions  are  capable  of  growth 
and  endurance,  the  sacred  stone  of  chartered  liberty  in  the 
Western  world."  l  This  message  was  carefully  studied  in  all 
the  capitals  of  Europe;  the  congress  was  never  called;  the 
plan  of  reducing  the  revolted  colonies  was  abandoned. 

421.  Lafayette's  Visit.  — In  1824,  Lafayette  (§  286),  now 
nearly  seventy  years  old,  in  response  to  an  invitation  from  the 
president,  made  our  country  a  visit.  He  stayed  more  than  a 
year,  and  visited  every  state  in  the  Union.  He  was  received 
everywhere  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  the  survivors  of  the 
Revolution  showing  the  deepest  feeling  at  again  clasping  the 
hand  of  their  old  comrade-in-arms.  Lafayette  had  joined 
our  struggle  for  independence  at  its  darkest  hour  ;  he  had 
expended  large  sums  of  money  from  his  private  fortune  to 
help  our  cause;  he  had  brought  us  soldiers  and  had  given 
us  the  prestige  of  his  great  name;  in  joining  us,  he  relin- 
quished his  home  and  a  certain  career  of  distinction  in  his  own 
country ;  he  repeatedly  risked  his  life  in  our  service ;  and  he 
had  joined  his  fortunes  with  ours  from  a  pure  sympathy  with 
the  oppressed,  an  ideal  love  of  abstract  liberty;  he  had  not 

l  Schouler,  «  History  of  the  United  States,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  288. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  2/1 

suffered  our  wrongs  or  borne  our  yoke.  We  were  deeply  in 
debt  to  him  and  anxious  to  show  our  appreciation  of  his  noble 
conduct.  Congress  seized  this  opportunity,  when  he  visited 
our  country  in  his  old  age,  broken  in  fortune,  suffering  the  loss 
of  political  power  at  home,  to  express  our  gratitude.  Two 
hundred  thousand  dollars  and  twenty-four  thousand  acres  of 
land  were  voted  to  him  as  a  slight  expression  of  the  affectionate 
remembrance  of  a  grateful  people.  Some  of  the  states  were 
eager  to  add  special  grants  to  the  national  grant,  but  Lafayette 
thought  it  best  not  to  accept  the  state  grants.1 

422.  The  Presidential  Election.  —  This  year  there  were 
four  candidates  for  the  presidency,  .all  calling  themselves  Re- 
publicans. Andrew  Jackson  received  99  electoral  votes,  John 
Quincy  Adams,  84;  W.  H.  Crawford,  41;  and  Henry  Clay, 
37.  As  none  of  the  candidates  had  a  majority,  there  was  no 
election,  and  it  became  the  duty  of  the  House  to  select  a  presi- 
dent. Clay  threw  his  strength  for  Adams,  who,  with  him, 
favored  high  tariff  and  loose  construction  of  the  Constitution, 
and  Adams  was  elected. 


1  The  American  youth  who  loves  liberty  cannot  find  a  better  subject  for  study 
than  the  career  of  Lafayette.  His  connection  with  our  Revolution  was  merely  a 
picturesque  and  significant  incident  in  a  long  life  devoted  to  the  cause  of  constitu- 
tional liberty.  His  career  was  one  marked  by  the  most  extreme  vicissitudes :  he 
was  one  of  the  leading  factors  in  the  Revolution,  a  few  years  after  the  American 
struggle,  in  his  own  country ;  his  party  lost  its  power,  and  Lafayette  to  save  his  life 
fled  from  the  country ;  he  was  captured  and  thrown  into  an  Austrian  prison,  where 
he  spent  several  years ;  he  was  liberated  by  the  great  Napoleon ;  again  became  an 
important  figure ;  again  had  reverses,  and  came  to  this  country,  broken  in  fortune, 
and  having  lost  his  seat  in  the  French  legislature ;  but  before  his  death,  after  visiting 
America,  he  again  became  prominent  and  powerful.  He  followed  the  star  of  liberty 
through  good  and  evil  report,  through  the  darkest  nights  and  through  days  of  the 
greatest  splendor ;  he  risked  his  life  by  the  peasant's  side  against  the  oppressor's 
tyranny,  and  he  threw  his  sheltering  arm  around  the  dethroned  monarch  to  protect 
him  from  the  despotic  fury  of  the  mob ;  and  through  his  long  career  he  was  the  same 
brave,  true,  chivalrous  knight,  the  same  consistent  democrat,  the  same  picturesque, 
heroic  figure. 


2/2  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

423.  Summary. — The   president's    northern    tour    aroused    patriotic 
feeling  and  added  to  his  personal  popularity.     The  Federalist  party,  which 
had    violently   opposed    the    war,    was    ruined    by   the    successful    result 
achieved,  and    by  the    overwhelming   endorsement  of  the  new  president, 
whom  it  had  also  opposed.     The  Seminole  Indians  were  severely  punished 
by  Jackson.     Florida,  which  served  as  a  refuge  to  these  lawless  Indians, 
was  sold  to  us  by  Spain  for  $5,000,000.     Mississippi,  Alabama  and  Illinois 
were  admitted  as  states.     Missouri's  request  for  admission  as  a  state  brought 
up  a  new  and  bitter  agitation  of  the  slavery  question.    Missouri  was  admitted 
under  a  compromise  which  forbade  slavery  in  all  other  Louisiana  territory 
north  of  36°  30',  leaving  the  question  to  the  choice  of  the  inhabitants  in 
territory  south  of  this  limit.     The  Erie  Canal,  extending  from  Lake  Erie 
to  the  Hudson  (363  miles),  was    completed  in   1825.     The    Cumberland 
Road  was  built  from  Maryland  to  Wheeling.   '  President  Monroe  declared 
that  the  United  States  would  oppose  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  European 
powers  to  gain  control  of  any  countries  in  America.     Lafayette  made  a 
tour  of  our  country,  and  was  presented  with  money  and  land  as  an  expres- 
sion of  our  gratitude. 

424.  Thought  Questions.  —  Give  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  Florida 
up  to  the  time  of  its  purchase  by  the  United  States.     (Treat  of  its  dis- 
covery,   exploration,    settlement,    population,    conflicts    with    neighboring 
colonies,  changes  of  ownership.)     Why  are  canals  of  less  importance  now 
than  formerly ?     Do  you  consider  the  Monroe  Doctrine  justifiable?     Give 
your  reasons.     What  do  you  consider  the  most  important  event  of  this 
administration  ? 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
One  Term:   1825-1829. 

425.  Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President.  —  John 
Quincy  Adams,  son  of  the  second  president,  was  born  in 
Massachusetts,  in  1767,  and  lived  to  be  81  years  of  age. 
Most  of  his  life  was  spent  in  office.  When  he  was  but  twenty- 
seven  years  old,  Washington  appointed  him  minister  to  the 
Netherlands.  At  different  times,  he  was  our  minister  to  Hol- 
land, Germany,  Russia,  and  England.  As  our  representative, 
he  spent  fifteen  years  at  foreign  courts.  While  abroad,  he 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 


273 


served  on  several  special  missions,  among  them  the  important 
one  that  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ghent  that  closed  the  war  of 
1812.  He  was  secretary 
of  state  in  Monroe's  cab- 
inet and  succeeded  Mon- 
roe as  president.  In  less 
than  two  years  after  his 
retirement  from  the  presi- 
dency, he  was  elected  to 
Congress  from  his  district 
in  Massachusetts,  and 
served  continuously  until 
his  death  fifteen  years 
later.  He  was  a  pure 
patriot  and  statesman  of 
great  learning  and  experi- 
ence. He  was  cold,  blunt, 
and  haughty  in  manner,  John  Quincy  Adams' 

the  reverse  of  the  simple  Republican  that  he  was  in  principle. 

426.  Material  Advancement.  —  The  Erie  Canal  was  opened 
during  the  year  of  Adams's  inauguration,  and  it  was  seen  that 
by  its  means  freight  could  be  handled  profitably  at  one-tenth 
the  former  cost  of  transportation.  The  demonstration  of  this 
fact  gave  a  great  impetus  to  canal-building.  Canals  were  pro- 
jected by  individuals,  companies,  and  states,  and  for  many  of 
them  aid  was  asked  from  Congress.  Pennsylvania  wished  to 
connect  Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia,  Ohio  proposed  to  join  Lake 
Erie  and  the  Ohio  River,  Virginia  and  Maryland  united  on  a 
favorite  plan,  and  it  was  prophesied  that  a  waterway  would 
finally  be  made  between  the  Pacific  ports  of  Oregon  and  Phila- 
delphia. Many  of  these  canals  were  actually  completed,  and 
no  doubt  canal-building  would  have  gone  beyond  the  most  ex- 
travagant prophecies  of  the  day  if  something  better  had  not 


2/4  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

speedily  been  found  in  railroads.  Steamboats  were  to  be 
found  in  great  numbers  along  our  western  coast  and  on  our 
western  rivers.  Steamships  had  crossed  the  ocean  by  this 
time ;  but  they  were  not  depended  upon  for  regular  trips. 
Canals  aided  commerce  in  the  East,  and  steamboats  on  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  were  fast  developing  the  West.  A  few 


Mohawk  Valley,  showing  Erie  Canal. 


miles  of  railroad  track  were  now  in  use,  but  the  cars  were 
drawn  by  horses.  The  locomotive  was  not  tried  until  a  year 
or  so  after  Adams's  administration  closed.  Illuminating  gas 
was  first  successfully  used  in  London  in  1813.  It  came  into 
general  use  in  New  York  City  in  1825,  but  the  other  cities 
were  much  slower  in  taking  hold  of  it  and  it  was  many  years 
before  it  came  to  be  used  in  the  small  towns. 

427.  Adams's  Policy.  —  Adams's  views  were  in  perfect  har- 
mony with  this  spirit  of  development ;  and  it  was  the  purpose 
of  the  president  to  encourage  progress  with  all  the  influence 
his  administration  could  command.  He  boldly  declared,  in  his 
inaugural  address,  that  his  administration  would  stand  or  fall 
on  the  policy  of  internal  improvements.  In  his  first  annual 
message,  he  urged  Congress  to  multiply  roads  and  canals, 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  2/5 

endow  a  national  university,  make  appropriations  for  scientific 
research,  and  erect  an  observatory.1 

428.  Failure  of  the  Policy. —  Congress  paid  very  little  at- 
tention to  the  policy  outlined  by  the  president.  The  "  Era  of 
Good  Feeling,"  of  Monroe's  administration,  was  followed  in 
Adams's  administration  by  the  growth  of  new  parties,2  political 
agitation,  personal  and  party  rivalries  and  bitterness.  Many 
thought  it  unjust  that  Adams,  who  had  fewer  votes  than  Jack- 
son (§  422),  should  have  been  selected  for  the  presidency;  and 
the  president  was  unpopular  with  those  who  thought  so.  The 
fact  that  Henry  Clay,  whose  influence  caused  this  minority 
candidate  to  be  elected,  was  immediately  made  secretary  of 
state,  gave  rise  to  the  charge  that  the  president  and  secretary 
had  made  a  corrupt  bargain.8  These  condemnations  were  used 
very  successfully  by  politicians  to  make  the  president  and  his 
administration  unpopular.  Besides  there  were  many  people 
who  thought  that  internal  improvements  should  be  taken  care 
of  by  state  appropriations  and  believed  that  it  was  wrong  to 
appropriate  national  revenues  for  these  purposes.  In  the  end, 
an  appropriation  of  $30,000  for  repairs  on  the  Cumberland 
Road  (§  419),  an  order  for  the  removal  of  obstructions  from 

1  In  1835,  when  a  member  of  Congress,  he  was  made  chairman  of  the  Congres- 
sional committee  that  was  to  consider  the  bequest  of  James  Smithson,  of  London,  of 
$400,000  to  establish  at  Washington  an  institution  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge. 
He  presented  a  very  able  report,  and  introduced  the  bill  creating  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  an  institution  of  which  the  nation  has  since  grown  justly  proud.    The 
ex-president  counted  his  services  in  connection  with  this  institution  among  the  most 
valuable  of  those  rendered  by  him  to  his  country. 

2  The  Clay  and  Adams  factions  united  and  called  themselves  National  Repub- 
licans.    They  were  "  loose  constructionists,"   believed  in  public   improvements   at 
national  expense  and  in  a  high  tax  on  imports.     Those  who  opposed  the  administra- 
tion called  themselves  Democrats.     They  believed  in  holding  closely  to  the  Constitu- 
tion, in  a  low  tariff,  and  in  using  the  national  revenues  only  for  the  support  of  the 
government. 

3  Senator  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  referred  to  the  matter  as  the  contract  between 
"  Puritan  and  blackleg."   Clay  challenged  Randolph  and  a  duel  was  fought.   Neither 
duellist  was  hurt. 


276  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  Ohio  River,  grants  of  some  public  lands  in  aid  of  canals, 
turnpikes,  and  to  establish  some  institutions  of  learning,  was 
the  little  that  Congress  would  do  in  response  to  the  glowing 
message  that  had  asked  so  much. 

429.  The  Creek  Land  Trouble.  —  By  an  agreement  with 
Georgia,  in  1802,  in  consideration  of  the  territory  which  after- 
wards made  the  States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  the  United 
States  undertook  to  deliver  to  Georgia  the  lands  held  by  the 
Indians  in  the  state.  In  carrying  out  this  agreement,  several 
millions  of  acres  of  land  had  been  bought  from  the  Indians 
and  the  title  transferred  to  Georgia ;  but  there  was  still  a  large 
section  of  this  land  in  the  possession  of  the  Indians.  The 
people  of  the  state  began  to  complain  of  the  delay  in  effecting 
the  total  transfer.  Negotiations  were  again  begun  with  the 
Indians.  In  1825,  a  treaty  was  made1  that  ceded  the  re- 
mainder of  the'  Georgia  lands  and  a  large  tract  in  Alabama 
besides.  But  the  Indians  immediately  repudiated  the  treaty, 
saying  that  it  was  fraudulent ;  and  expressed  their  savage  indig- 
nation by  burning  the  house  of  their  agent,  General  Mclntosh, 
and  afterwards  murdering  him.  They  sent  a  delegation  to 
Washington  to  show  that  the  treaty  had  been  obtained  by  cor- 
rupt means  and  to  ask  a  reconsideration.  President  Adams 
thought  the  treaty  unfair  and  probably  unfairly  obtained.  He 
sent  a  body  of  troops  to  Georgia  with  instructions  to  their  gen- 
eral to  obtain  a  new  cession  about  which  there  could  be  no 
question.  Under  the  direction  of  the  Georgia  authorities  the 
survey  of  the  new  lands  acquired  by  the  Mclntosh  treaty  had 
already  begun.  The  federal  officer  asked  that  the  survey 
cease.  The  governor,  taking  the  position  that  the  lands  had 
been  turned  over  to  the  state,  and  could  be  managed  at  the 
state's  discretion,  insisted  that  the  survey  should  proceed. 

1  The  United  States  was  represented  by  two  agents,  the  Indians  by  General 
Mclntosh,  their  chief. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  2/7 

The  president  finally  notified  the  governor  that  he  would  ex- 
pect all  surveys  to  cease  until  Congress  should  consider  the 
matter.  There  was  further  controversy  between  the  state  and 
federal  authorities,  and  considerable  excitement  arose  in 
Georgia.  In  the  end,  a  new  and  undisputed  cession  was  made 
by  which  the  Indians  relinquished  the  lands  and  bound  them- 
selves to  emigrate  to  a  new  home  beyond  the  Mississippi. 

430.  Character  of  the  Period. —  The  people  had  already 
shown  a  great  interest  in  public  improvements.     They  saw  the 
advantages  to  be  gained  by  good  roads,  open  waterways,  cheap 
exchange  of  products.     The  president  urged  Congress  to  aid 
the  people  in  developing  the  country.     But  Congress  believed 
that  it  had  no  right  to  use  national  funds  to  aid  any  enterprise 
not  wholly  national  in  its  character.     So  Congress  granted  very 
little  of  all  the  president  asked.     But  progress  was  the  watch- 
word of  the   day.       By  means  of  aid  from  states,  and  from 
private  enterprise,  improvements  multiplied  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.     The  advancement  was  as  great  as  the  president  had 
hoped,  though  it  was  not  brought  about  as  he  had  planned  it. 

431.  Summary.  —  The  Erie  Canal,  opened  in  1825,  proved  that  freight 
could  be  carried  by  it  at  one-tenth  the  price  paid  for  the  old  wagon  trans- 
portation.    Other  canals  were  built  and  many  more  were  planned.     Rail- 
roads, however,  soon  checked  the  growth  of  canals.     Steamboats  were  to 
be  found  on  our  coasts  and  on  our  large  rivers.     Steamships  crossed  the 
ocean.     Illuminating  gas  was  used  in  New  York  City  in  1825.     The  presi- 
dent's policy  was  to  build  up  public  improvements  with  the  national  reve- 
nues.    Congress  opposed  this  policy  and  granted  very  little  that  he  asked. 
Improvements  went  forward  rapidly  by  means  of  private  enterprise.     In 
settling  an  old  agreement,  the  Creek  lands  in  Georgia  were  bought  by  the 
government  and  transferred  to  the  state. 

432.  Thought  Questions.  —  What  benefits  result  from  cheap  and  rapid 
transportation  ?     Of  the  six  presidents  so  far  considered,  who  served  only 
one  term  ?     Account  for  the  failure  of  these  two  to  be  reflected.     What 
was  the  distinguishing  feature  of  John  Quincy  Adams's  administration? 


2/8  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES). 

347.  The  First  President. 

f  Enthusiasm  of  the  people. 

348.  The  Inauguration.  4  _  .      . 

(_  Delay  in  the  ceremony. 

f  The  Federalists. 

349.  Pohtical  Parties.  {  ^  Ant,Federalists. 

f  Population. 

350.  The  New  Nation.  <  Area. 

[^  Patriotism. 

f  The  president's  policy. 

351.  The  First  Cabinet.    4-_ 

\  Officers  appointed. 

f  The  public  debt. 

352.  Finances.  •<  „     .,      .     . 

\  Hamilton's  plans. 

353.  The  Whiskey  Insurrection. 

f  Pioneers  in  the  West. 

354.  Extension  of  Frontier.  <   Conflicts  with  the  Indians. 

[  New  states. 
(  France  and  England. 

355.  Foreign  Relations,  -i   Citizen  Genet. 

[  Treaty  with  England, 
f  The  inventor. 

356.  The  Cotton  Gin.  ^   The  invention. 

L  Results. 

357.  The  Second  Terrm 

f  Travel  and  news. 


358.  Condition  of  the  Country.       £^£[- 

[  School  apparatus, 
f  361.  The  New  President. 

,    f  Site  of  the  city. 

362.  Change  of  the  Capital.  |  District  rf  Columbia 

f  Quarrel  with  the  Directory. 

363.  Trouble  with  France.    |  ^  toward  war. 

364.  Death  of  Washington. 

365.  The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. 

....    _  f  Opposition    to    the    Alien    and 

366.  The  Virginia  and  Kentucky       ^ .    ,.  .      T 

'  <      Sedition  Laws. 
Resolutions. 

[_  Action  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 

367.  Treaty  with  France. 

'  Complication. 
Final  settlement. 


368.  Presidential  Election,  j 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  2/9 

371.  The  New  President. 

372.  Republican  Simplicity.     Jefferson's  course. 

f  Depredations  of  the  pirates. 

373.  Pirates  of  the   I    Practice  of  European  nations. 
Mediterranean.  ]   Action  of  the  United  States. 

[  Treaty. 

374.  A  New  State. 

f  Importance  of  the  Mississippi. 

j   Different  owners  of  Louisiana. 

375.  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  4  _ 

Purchase  by  the  United  States. 

[  Results. 

f  Purpose. 

376.  Lewis  and  Clarke  Expedition.   1  Route. 
§  [  Results. 

f  Action  of  England  and  France. 

377.  Trouble  with  England.  <  The  Embargo  Act. 

[  Repeal  of  the  Act. 

f  Duel  with  Hamilton. 

378.  Aaron  Burr's  Treasons  „  .  ,  , 

\  Tnal  for  treason. 

379.  Importation  of  Slaves  Prohibited. 

f  The  inventor. 

384.  The  First  Steamboat.  J   The  invention. 
[  Results. 

383.  The  New  President. 

384.  Difficulties  of  the  f  Disputes  with  England  and  France. 

Administration.  \  Policy  of  United  States. 

S"  «        38S.  The  Process  of  Relief.  {  Negotiations  with  England. 
|^  Negotiations  with  France. 


i 


H  , 


Indian  uprising. 

386.  The  Tippecanoe  Incident.  <{   Harrison's  campaign. 

Feeling  against  England. 

387.  Wrongs  to  our  Seamen. 

ievances  against  England, 
declared. 


388.  Declaration  of  War.  -I     "ev 


389.  First  Movement  against  Canada. 

f  Constitution  and  Guerrttre. 

390,  391.  Naval  Battles.  <j    Wasp  and  Frolic. 

\_  American  success, 
f  Queenstown  Heights. 

392.  Invasion  of  Canada. <   Disgraceful  conduct  of  militia. 

[_  Failure  of  this  movement. 

393.  Madison's  Reelection. 


280 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


395.  Plan  of  Land  Forces. 

f  Raisin  River  massacre. 


396-9-  Events  ml 


I    400.  Events  in  the  East. 


394,  401.  On  the  Sea. 


402.  The  Creek  Uprising. 


Forts  Meigs  and  Stephenson. 
vict          \ake  ErieP 

Invasion  of  Canada  ;  Thames  victory. 
Results  of  the  Western  campaign. 

f  Invasion  of  Canada  :  Toronto. 
Defense  of  Sackett's  Harbor. 


I   Canada  again  invaded. 

[_  Movement  against  Montreal. 

Chesapeake  and  Shannon. 
Disadvantages  overcome. 
Ravages  on  Atlantic  coast. 

Massacre  at  Fort  Mims. 
Battle  of  Horseshoe  Bend. 


r  Chippewa. 

403,  404.  Last  Invasion  J   Niagara  Falls, 
of  Canada.      [   Fort  Erie. 

[  Withdrawal  from  Canada. 

f  Reduced  forces  of  Americans. 
405-  Battle  of  Lake  !   British  attacking  forces. 
Champlam.    |  The  victory. 

f  The  blockade. 

406.  Along  the  Coast.  •<    Sacking  of  the  capital. 
[  Attack  on  Baltimore. 


407.  The  Hartford 
Convention. 


f  Dissatisfaction  in  New  England. 
•J    Meeting  of  the  convention. 


408.  Peace. 


The  treaty. 
Results  of  the  war. 


12  £ 


409.  Battle  of  New  Orleans. 


Battle  unnecessary. 
The  opposing  armies. 
The  victory. 


410.  New  States. 


f  From  Louisiana  purchase. 
\  From  Northwest  Territory. 


PERIOD    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  28 1 

413.  The  New  President. 

f  Purpose. 

414.  President's  Northern  Tour.   4   Incidents. 

[  Result. 
(  The  Seminole  War. 

415.  Extension  of  Territory.  ^   Purchase  of  Florida. 

i    States  admitted. 

Q 

C  The  sections  balanced. 

<J          4r6.  Slavery.  <j   Opinion  in  the  North. 
[  Opinion  in  the  South. 

417.  The  Missouri  Compromise.  \  „ 

I  The  settlement. 


P  L     f  The  Erie  Canal. 

<j         418,  419.  Improvements.- 


<1 


The  Cumberland  Road. 
03 

f  The  occasion. 

420.  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  <  The  "  Doctrine." 

[  The  result, 
g         421.  Lafayette's  Visit. 

f  No  decision  by  electors. 
422.  Presidential  Election.  1  _, 

\  Decision  by  the  House. 

425.  The  New  President. 

f  Canals  and  steamboats. 

426.  Material  Advancement.  ^   Railroads. 

W    |  [  Illuminating  gas. 

W 

427.  The  President's  Policy.     Recommendations  to  Congress. 

(  Unpopularity  of  the  president. 


Failure  of  the  Policy. 


Action  of  Congress. 


The  Creek    f  ASreement  between  Georgia  and  United  States. 
"  Land  Trouble    I   Trouble  between  Georgia  and  the  Indians. 

[_  Trouble  between  Georgia  and  United  States. 
430.  Character  of  the  Period. 


282  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 

(JACKSON  TO  BUCHANAN.) 

JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

Two  Terms:   1829-1837. 

433.   Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President. — 

Andrew  Jackson  was  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1767.  He 
early  made  his  home  in  Tennessee,  was  a  resident  of  the  state 
when  he  was  elected  to  the  presidency,  and  after  serving  his 
term  returned  to  his  estate  there,  where  he  resided  till  his 
death  in  1845.  His  chief  services  to  his  country  previous  to 
his  election  to  the  presidency  were  of  a  military  character. 
With  volunteer  and  independent  parties 
he  aided  the  patriots  in  the  Revolution. 
He  was  captured  by  the  British  and  much 
mistreated  by  them.  In  the  war  of  1812, 
|  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  wonderful 
'defense  of  New  Orleans  (§  409).  His 
great  popularity  was  due  to  the  people's 
enthusiasm  for  him  as  a  daring  and  suc- 
cessful military  chieftain.  He  was,  besides, 
Andrew  Jackson  a  western  man  and  carried  the  support 

of  this  growing  territory.     He  was  a  man 

of  the  people  in  his  origin,  in  his  habits,  and  in  his  methods  of 
thought;  and  the  plain  people  of  the  South  and  West  elected 
him  to  the  presidency  and  loyally  supported  him  through  the 
eight  years  of  his  stormy  contests  with  politicians  and  would-be 
aristocrats.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  will,  disposed  to  control 
every  movement  with  which  he  was  connected.  He  was  honest 
and  fearless  and  blunt  of  speech.  He  was  a  loyal  citizen,  pre- 
pared to  sacrifice  property  or  life  to  his  country;  but  his  methods 
were  those  of  a  partisan  and  he  sometimes  mistook  his  own 
prejudices  for  national  principles. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  283 

434.  Changes  in  Office.  —  Jackson  dominated  his  adminis- 
tration to  a  degree  unusual  with  presidents.     He  was  familiar 
with   the    methods    of    military  government  which  cause   the 
prompt  and  unhesitating  execution  of  the  orders  of  the  superior 
officers.     He  had  definite  policies  and  principles  to  execute. 
Looking  upon  himself  as  the  chief  officer  of  a  party  that  advo- 
cated those  principles,  he  called  to  aid  him  in  the  execution  of 
those  policies  only  officers  who  had  faith  in  the  party's  plans. 
He,  therefore,  removed  from  office  those  bitterly  opposed  to 
these  party  policies  and  appointed  from  his  own  party  men 
who  believed  these  policies  for  the  best  interests  of  the  country. 
These   political   removals    subjected   the   president   to    much 
criticism  ; 1  but  succeeding  presidents  have  followed  the  same 
practice,  believing  that  a  government  carried  on  through  parties 
must  have  the  party  policies  executed  by  those  who  believe  in 
them. 

435.  The  National  Bank.  —  Up  to  this  time,  the  financial 
transactions  of  the  government  had  been  managed  through  a 
national  bank  situated  at  Philadelphia2  (§  352).     This  central 
bank   had   twenty-five   branches   in  the  different  states.     Its 
charter,  granted   in    1816,  was   for   a   term   of   twenty  years. 
Jackson,    in    his    first    message    to     Congress     (1829),    ques- 
tioned both  the  soundness  of  the  law  creating  the  bank  and 
the  wisdom  of  its  continuance.      He  said  that  it  had  failed 
in  one  of  the   chief   purposes  for  which  it  was  established, 
viz. :    that  of  making  a   uniform    and   sound    currency.      He 
suggested   that    Congress   try   some   other  plan.      His  utter- 
ances  on    this    subject    caused     excited    discussion    all    over 

1  "  Of  Jackson's  procedure  in  this  matter  it  can  be  said,  in  partial  excuse,  so  bitter 
had  been  the  opposition  to  him  by  office-holders  as  well  as  others,  that  many  removals 
were  undoubtedly  indispensable  in  order  to  the  efficiency  of  the  public  service."  — 
Andrews' s  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  I,  p.  357. 

2  The  first  United  States  bank  was  chartered  for  twenty  years,  1791-1811. 


284  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  country.  Gradually,  as  this  discussion  continued,  and 
voters  began  to  take  sides  for  or  against  the  bank,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  renewal  of  its  charter  became  a  leading  issue  in 
politics.  The  president  and  his  friends  continually  and  vigor- 
ously opposed  the  renewal  of  the  charter ;  Henry  Clay  and  his 
friends,  and  the  bank's  friends,  and  the  enemies  of  the  presi- 
dent united  in  upholding  the  bank  and  in  pressing  for  a  new 
charter.  In  his  second  message,  the  president  again  opposed 
the  re-charter  of  the  bank,  and  a  bill  to  renew  the  charter  for 
fifteen  years  was  killed  by  his  veto.  Late  in  1833,  in  the 
vacation  of  Congress,  the  president,  through  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  began  depositing  the  nation's  funds,  as  they 
came  in,  in  state  banks".  Before  March  of  the  following 
year,  more  than  six  million  dollars  had  been  paid  out  from  the 
national  bank.  The  necessity  of  producing  so  much  money  in 
so  short  a  time  necessarily  strained  the  resources  of  the  bank 
to  the  utmost ;  but  it  stood  firm  and  met  all  engagements. 
When  Congress  met,  Senator  Clay  introduced  a  resolution  cen- 
suring the  president  and  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  for 
withdrawing  the  public  patronage  from  the  bank.  A  long  and 
angry  debate  followed.  When  a  vote  was  reached,  it  was 
found  that  the  Senate  was  for  condemning  the  president's 
course  and  in  favor  of  returning  the  funds  to  the  national 
bank.  But  the  House  supported  the  president  and  passed  a 
bill  regulating  the  deposit  in  the  state  banks.  The  Congress 
of  1835  passed  an  act  pursuing  the  president's  policy  in  regard 
to  the  bank,  authorizing  and  regulating  the  deposit  of  public 
funds  in  state  banks,  and  permitting  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  to  sell  the  government's  stock  in  the  national  bank, 
thereby  ending  all  national  connection  with  it.  The  charter 
expired  in  1836  and  it  was  not  renewed. 

436.    Tariff  Development. —  From  an  early  day  the  amount 
of  duty  to  be  laid  and  the  choice  of  imports  to  be  taxed  have 


JOHN    C.  CALHOUN. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  285 

formed  important  questions  of  legislation  and  have  divided 
political  parties.  The  first  tariff  act,  passed  during  Washing- 
ton's administration  (§  352),  was  primarily  for  the  purpose 
of  raising  a  revenue  for  the  expenses  of  our  government  and 
for  paying  our  debts.  The  people  of  new  England  favored 
a  low  tariff  because  they  were  chiefly  engaged  in  commerce, 
and  the  lower  the  tax  on  imports  the  larger  would  be  the 
volume  of  trade.  The  southern  cotton-growing  states  also 
favored  a  low  tariff.  The  destruction  of  our  foreign  commerce 
during  the  war  of  1812  caused  us  to  manufacture  many 
articles  formerly  bought  of  other  countries.  But  we  were  not 
able  to  manufacture  many  things  as  cheaply  as  they  could  be 
imported.  In  1816,  Congress  was  asked  to  raise  the  tax  on 
imports  so  that  the  price  on  certain  articles  would  be  increased 
to  such  a  degree  that  our  own  people  could  afford  to  manu- 
facture them.1  A  bill  having  this  object  was  passed  —  chiefly 
by  the  Republicans.  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina, 
led  in  supporting  it.  The  Federalists  and  the  New  Englanders, 
led  by  Daniel  Webster,  opposed  it. 

New  England,  lacking  a  fertile  soil  and  a  mild  climate, 
could  not  compete  with  other  sections  in  agricultural  produc- 
tions ;  but  as  it  possessed  water  and  fuel  in  abundance  it 
gradually  developed  into  a  great  manufacturing  region.  With 
this  change  of  occupation  there  was  a  gradual  change  of 
opinion  as  to  the  value  of  a  high  or  protective  tariff. 
A  manufacturing  region  is,  of  course,  directly  benefited  by 
a  high  tariff,  as  the  price  of  manufactured  articles  is  increased 
thereby.  On  the  other  hand,  many  people  in  the  South  who 
had  formerly  supported  a  high  tariff  had  come  to  see  that  agri- 
culture must  be  their  chief  occupation,  and  that  their  interest 
lay  in  keeping  down  the  price  of  manufactured  articles  that 
they  must  buy.  In  1824  the  vote  for  a  bill  raising  the  tariff 

1  This  kind  of  tariff  is  called  "  protective,"  because  it  protects  the  home  manu- 
facturer from  foreign  competition. 


286  HISTORY    OF     OUR    COUNTRY. 

showed  an  increasing  sentiment  in  favor  of  it  in  New  England 
and  a  decreasing  sentiment  in  South  Carolina  and  the  adjoining 
region.  Its  chief  strength  came  from  central  and  western  states. 
It  was  opposed  by  Webster  and  many  New  Englanders  and  by 
the  people  of  the  Southern  states.  The  bill  was  passed. 

In  1828,  a  bill  was  offered,  providing  still  higher  protection 
than  the  bill  of  1824.  Webster  was  one  of  its  chief  advocates.1 
New  England  was  strongly  in  favor  of  it.  Calhoun  and  the 
people  of  his  state  were  bitterly  opposed  to  it.  The  people 
of  the  cotton-growing  states  were  opposed  to  it.  There  was 
an  angry  contest  in  Congress  and  much  excitement  in  the 
country.  The  bill  was  passed. 

437.  Nullification.  —  Early  in  Jackson's  administration,  this 
tariff  controversy  led  to  one  of  the  most  famous  debates  (in  1830) 
ever  held  in  the  Senate.  Senator  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina, 
in  a  series  of  speeches  that  rank  among  the  greatest  efforts  of 
human  oratory,  advanced  the  views  that  the  national  government 
had  no  power  to  lay  high  protective  tariffs,  and  that  the  states 
might  justly  and  constitutionally  refuse  to  pay  them  ;  that  it  lay 
within  the  province  of  a  state's  power  to  "nullify"  or  set  aside 
an  act  of  Congress.  Daniel  Webster,  senator  from  Massachu- 
setts, replied  to  Senator  Hayne,  and  in  advocating  the  power  of 
the  Federal  government,  and  pleading  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Union,  made  a  speech  that  is  one  of  the  world's  great  master- 
pieces of  eloquence.  Two  years  later,  a  new  tariff  bill  (raising 
some  duties  against  which  the  South  had  protested,  though  the 
sum  of  the  duties  was  somewhat  lowered)  was  introduced  in 
Congress  and  led  to  a  fierce  and  prolonged  controversy.  The 
bill  was  brought  forward  under  the  advice  and  management  of 
Henry  Clay.  The  plan  he  advocated  was  called  the  "  Ameri- 
can System"  —  a  policy  of  high  tariff  and  internal  improve- 
ments. It  was  violently  opposed  by  the  whole  South  Carolina 

l  Daniel  Webster  at  first  advocated  free  trade,  as  that  was  the  policy  favored  by 
his  Massachusetts  constituency;  but  he  afterwards  became  a  protectionist  when 
Massachusetts  became  a  manufacturing  state. 


DANIEL    WEBSTER. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  2$/ 

delegation,  led  by  Senator  Hayne  and  Vice-President  Calhoun. 
The  bill  —  which  had  been  carefully  framed  to  aid  all  the  manu- 
facturing sections  of  the  country  —  when  it  came  to  a  vote 
(July,  1832)  passed  by  a  large  majority.  In  the  November 
following,  South  Carolina  held  a  state  convention  called  by  the 
state  Legislature,  and  presided  over  by  the  governor,  which 
declared  the  tariff  acts  of  1828  and  1832  null  and  void  and  not 
enforceable  after  the  ist  of  February,  1833.  The  Legislature 
immediately  passed  the  laws  necessary  to  carry  out  the  wishes 
of  the  convention  in  resisting  the  collection  of  duties  in  the 
ports  of  South  Carolina.  President  Jackson  took  prompt  and 
decided  steps  to  enforce  the  law.  He  sent  an  officer  and 
a  sloop-of-war  to  Charleston  to  protect  the  custom  officers  in 
the  collection  of  duties.  He  posted  troops  on  the  border 
where  they  would  be  at  ready  command  in  an  emergency.  In 
December,  he  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  people  of  the  state, 
upholding  the  right  and  the  power  of  the  Federal  government, 
and  admonishing  the  citizens  against  resistance.  At  the 
same  time,  in  his  message  to  Congress,  again  in  session,  he 
proposed  a  reduction  of  the  tariff  that  had  caused  the  trouble. 
Further  war-like  preparations  were  made  on  both  sides  ;  but  in 
the  end  there  was  a  peaceful  adjustment.  Calhoun,  having  re- 
signed the  vice-presidency,  appeared  in  Congress  as  a  senator 
from  South  Carolina,  filling  a  vacancy  caused  by  the  resigna- 
tion of  Senator  Hayne,  and  he  and  Webster  held  another 
debate  on  the  rights  and  prerogatives  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment in  relation  to  the  rights  and  prerogatives  of  the  states, 
that  was  as  famous  as  the  previous  one  on  the  same  subject. 
But  a  compromise  tariff  bill,  advocated  by  Clay,  lowering  many 
duties  in  the  line  asked  by  the  South,  was  passed  by  Congress 
late  in  February.1  This  satisfied  South  Carolina.  The  Nullifi- 
cation Ordinance  was  at  once  repealed  by  another  state  con- 
vention, and  all  active  opposition  to  the  tariff  regulations  ceased. 

1  South  Carolina  had  postponed  the  enforcement  of  her  nullification  measures 
until  March  4. 


288  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

438.  Indian  Uprisings.  —  The  Sac  and  the  Fox  Indians, 
living  in  Wisconsin,  agreed  to  remove  to  territory  set  apart  for 
them  in  Iowa.     Part  of  the  tribe  made  the  change  peaceably ; 
but  the  chief,  Black  Hawk,  and  some  of  his  followers  were  re- 
moved by  force.     From  the  Iowa  territory  frequent  raids  were 
made  into  the  surrounding  region,  and  for  years  the  settlers  of 
the  vicinity  lived  in  fear  of  attack. 

Some  of  the  Seminole  tribe  were  yet  living  in  Florida.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  remove  them  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
The  tribe  rose  in  revolt,  and  massacred  all  but  four  of  a  band 
of  one  hundred  men.  General  Taylor  marched  against  the 
Indians,  pursued  them  into  the  everglades  of  Florida,  and  de- 
feated them  in  a  hard-fought  battle.  They  .were  not  entirely 
subdued  till  1842,  seven  years  from  their  first  outbreak.  Much 
money  was  spent  and  many  lives  were  lost  in  the  contests. 

439.  The  Abolition  Crusade:  the  Pioneers. —  Though  all 
sections  in  the  United  States  practiced  slavery  in  the  begin- 
ning, there  were  men  here  and  there  who  thought  it  an  evil. 
Some  of  our  greatest  statesmen,  Southern  as  well  as  Northern, 
did  not  hesitate  to  declare  publicly  their  condemnation  of  it. 
Many  states  had,   before  this    time,   passed  laws  to  abolish 
slavery  either  immediately  or  gradually.     Societies  had  been 
formed  to  colonize  freed  slaves  out  of  the  country.     But  the 
first  man  to  devote  his  life  to  an  effort  to  free  the  slaves  was 
Benjamin    Lundy,   a  Quaker   of    New   Jersey.      He   founded 
(1821)  and  published  for  several  years  in  different  parts  of  our 
country  —  Ohio,  Tennessee,  Maryland,  and  other  states  —  a 
journal  called   The  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation.       The 
editor  also  labored  to  form  emancipation  societies  and  spoke 
on  the  subject  when  he  could  get  audiences.     His  crusade  was 
one  of  argument  and  persuasion,  and  he  addressed  his  appeal 
to  the  humane  and  kindly  feelings  of  the  white  people.      At 
Boston,  he  met  and  made  a  convert  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  289 

For  a  short  time,  Garrison  aided  Lundy  in  the  publication  of 
The  Genius;  but  in  1831,  he  began  printing  in  Boston  an 
abolition  paper  of  his  own  called  The  Liberator.  Garrison 
condemned  slavery  in  a  violent  way  that  provoked  much  bitter 
feeling.  He  would  not  consent  to  the  purchase  of  the  slaves 
nor  to  their  gradual  emancipation.  He  said  slavery  was  a 
crime  and  the  slave-holder  a  criminal.  He  demanded  the 
immediate  and  unconditional  abolition  of  slavery. 

440.  The   Opinions.  —  Extremists    at   the    South   believed 
slavery  to  be  profitable  and  right  and  were  willing,  if  need  be, 
to  leave  the  Union  in  order  to  preserve  it.     Conservative  peo- 
ple, both  North  and  South,  believed  that  it  had  been  recog- 
nized in  the  formation  of  the  Union  and  in  the  making  of  the 
Constitution,  and  that  efforts  to  abolish  it  violated  the  good 
faith  of  the  compact  of  the  states.    Individuals,  here  and  there, 
of  this  conservative  majority  condemned  slavery  on  abstract 
grounds  and  wished  that  some  just  means  of  abolition  could 
be  devised ;  but  they  could  see  none,  and  so  strongly  censured 
the  methods  of  such  men  as  Garrison.     Abolitionists  asserted 
that  the  "  Constitution  was  a  covenant  with   death  and  an 
agreement  with  hell,"  and  were  anxious  that  the  slave-holding 
states  should  be  cast  out  of  the  Union.     These  were  the  most 
distinct  opinions  :  necessarily  there  were  many  other  opinions 
based  on  minor  principles. 

441.  The  Condition  of  the  Crusade.  —  Under  Garrison's 
influence,  many  societies  were  formed  in  the  Northern  states 
for  the  purpose  of  urging  the  abolition  of  slavery.     Every  pos- 
sible means  of  agitation  was  used,  speeches  were  made,  articles 
written  for  the  newspapers,  candidates  of  abolition  tendencies 
put  forward,  Congress  petitioned,  and  incendiary  circulars  sent 
through  the  mails  to  all  parts  of  the  South.     The  slaves  began 
to  feel  the  influence  of  the  agitation.     In  Virginia,  in  1831  (the 


29O  HISTORY   OF   OUR    COUNTRY. 

same  year  that  The  Liberator  first  saw  the  light),  there  was  a 
negro  uprising  which  resulted  in  the  massacre  of  sixty  white 
people.  Other  uprisings  were  threatened ;  and  in  many  quarters 
slaves  became  excited  and  rebellious.  The  Southern  people 
had  become  very  sensitive  on  this  subject.  They  wanted  to 
take  extreme  measures  for  the  suppression  of  the  abolition  agi- 
tation. Garrison,  while  editing  The  Genius,  in  Baltimore,  was 
arrested,  fined,  and  put  in  jail.  Georgia  offered  five  thousand 
dollars  reward  for  the  arrest  of  any  one  found  circulating 
The  Liberator  in  the  state.  Packages  of  incendiary  pamphlets 
were  taken  from  the  mails  and,  together  with  effigies  of  leading 
abolition  agitators,  publicly  burned.  But  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  were  for  preserving  the  Union  as  it  stood,  and  were  in 
favor  of  suppressing  in  a  lawful  way  all  disorganizing  violence, 
whether  North  or  South.  By  a  vote  nearly  unanimous  the 
Senate  refused  (1836)  to  grant  a  petition  to  abolish  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  The  House,  later  in  the  same  year, 
declared  that :  (i)  Congress  had  no  constitutional  authority  to 
interfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery  in  any  state ;  (2)  that 
Congress  ought  not  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  District  of 
Columbia;  and  by  a  vote  of  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  mem- 
bers, passed  a  resolution  that  it  would  n6t  consider  in  any  way 
a  petition,  memorial,  resolution,  or  proposition  in  regard  to 
slavery.  So,  although  the  abolition  agitators  had  created  much 
excitement,  it  was  apparent  that  a  great  majority  of  the  people 
were  opposed  to  the  agitation  and  the  strife  it  engendered. 

442.  Railways ;  New  States.  —  Railways  were  first  used  in 
England  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  mineral  ore  from  mines 
to  some  convenient  shipping  point.  The  cars  on  these  first  rail- 
ways were  drawn  by  horses.  The  first  railway  built  in  this  coun- 
try (1826)  extended  from  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  the  Neponset  River, 
a  distance  of  five  miles,  and  was  for  the  purpose  of  transport- 
ing granite  from  the  quarry  to  a  shipping  point.  The  cars  were 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


291 


drawn  by  horses.  A  few  other  railways  for  similar  purposes 
and  operated  in  the  same  way  were  built  in  the  country. 
Several  unsuccessful  efforts  were  made  in  England  to  con- 
struct steam-engines  that 
would  draw  the  cars.  A 
like  experiment  was  made 
with  a  steam-engine  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1829. 
George  Stephenson,  an 
English  engineer,  was  the  First  American  Railwa>  <the  "Granite  Road  ••). 
first  to  make  a  really  successful  locomotive.  This  locomotive 
was  tried  in  America  in  1831.  But  Americans  immediately 
began  the  manufacture  of  locomotives  from  their  own  patterns l 

that  were  better  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  our  country.  With 
the  success  of  locomotives, 
railroad  building  developed 
very  rapidly.  Before  the  close 
of  Jackson's  administration, 
there  were  fifteen  hundred 
miles  of  railway  in  the  United 
States.  Railways  were  just 
what  was  needed  for  the 

Stephenson's  Locomotive  (the  "  Rocket  ")•      development    of     Our    Country. 

They  were  seized  upon  immediately  and  we  have  never  ceased 
building  them.  The  United  States  now  have  nearly  as  many 
miles  of  railway  as  are  found  in  the  remainder  of  the  world. 

Arkansas,  originally  from  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  state  in  1836.  Michigan,  the  fourth  state  from  the 
Northwest  Territory,  was  admitted  in  1837. 

443.  The  Whig  Party.  —  The  president  soon  had  several 
classes  of  people  opposed  to  him.  Those  who  supported  the 
bank,  those  who  favored  a  high  protective  tariff,  those  who  be- 

1  The  first  successful  American  locomotive,  called  the  "  Arabian,"  was  built  in 
1833.  It  was  still  running  in  1883,  but  during  this  year  was  destroyed  by  fire. 


2Q2  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

lieved  in  state  sovereignty,1  and  the  nullifiers  could  unite  in 
opposition  to  Jackson.  These  factions  began  to  call  them- 
selves Whigs,  though  they  did  not  at  this  time  form  a  close 
party  organization.  Clay,  who  had  been  the  leader  of  the 
National  Republicans,  was  now  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party, 
the  Republican  party's  successor.  The  name  "  Whig "  was 
selected  (1834)  because  that  was  the  name  of  the  English 
party  that  had  resisted  the  tyranny  of  King  George  III.,  and 
this  American  party  meant  to  resist  what  they  called  the 
tyranny  of  Jackson.  However,  the  Whigs  were  united  on 
nothing  but  opposition  to  Jackson.  Different  factions  of  the 
party  put  forward  different  candidates  for  the  presidency.  The 
Democratic  party  put  forward  but  one  candidate,  Van  Buren, 
and  gained  an  easy  victory. 

444.  Summary.  —  The  president  made  the  custom  of  removing  politi- 
cal enemies  from  office  and  appointing  political  friends,  conspicuous.  He 
waged  a  long  contest  against  the  national  bank.  The  bank's  charter  ex- 
pired in  1836  and  was  not  renewed.  The  national  funds  were  placed  in 
state  banks.  Parties  were  divided  on  the  tariff  tax.  Those  who  believed 
in  "protecting"  home  manufactures  introduced  a  bill  laying  higher  duties 
on  imports.  This  bill  was  bitterly  opposed  in  the  South.  After  the  bill 
was  passed  by  Congress,  South  Carolina  held  a  convention  and  "  nullified  " 
the  act.  The  president  sent  a  sloop-of-war  and  troops  to  Charleston  to 
enforce  the  collection  of  duties.  In  its  ne^ct  session,  Congress  modified 
the  law  so  that  it  was  not  so  objectionable  to  the  South.  South  Carolina 
repealed  her  Nullification  Ordinance.  This  administration  marks  the  rapid 
rise  of  the  abolition  crusade.  Papers  and  pamphlets  were  published,  socie- 
ties were  formed,  and  orators  spoke  in  opposition  to  slavery.  Congress 
refused  to  pass  any  anti-slavery  laws  or  to  interfere  in  any  way.  Locomo- 
tives came  into  use  on  railways  and  revolutionized  the  methods  of  civiliza- 
tion. The  Whig  party  was  formed  as  a  successor  to  the  National  Repub- 
lican party.  Arkansas  and  Michigan  were  admitted. 

1  It  was  the  doctrine  of  a  large  party  in  the  South,  that  the  Union  was  simply  a 
compact  between  the  states ;  that  any  state  could  withdraw  from  this  compact  and 
leave  the  Union  at  its  own  pleasure ;  that  the  state  was  supreme  and  not  the  general 
government.  This  was  the  doctrine  of  State  Sovereignty. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


293 


445.  Thought  Questions.  —  What  can  be  said  in  favor  of  permitting  the 
president  to  fill  the  offices,  under  his  administration,  with  his  friends  and 
adherents  ?  To  what  evils  may  this  practice  lead  ?  Are  United  States 
funds  deposited  in  national  banks  to-day  ?  Debate  :  Resolved  that  a  pro- 
tective tariff  is  best  for  the  United  States.  Give  two  instances  in  our 
history  where,  through  self-interest,  a  section  has  changed  or  modified  its 
political  beliefs.  Compare  the  effects  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  with 
those  of  the  Tariff  Act  of  1832.  What  do  you  consider  the  most  important 
event  of  this  administration  ? 


VAN  BUREN'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

One  Term  :  1837-1841. 

446.   Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President.— 

Martin  Van  Buren  was  born  in  New  York  in  1782.  He  early 
evinced  an  ambition 
and  a  capacity  for  pub- 
lic service.  For  most 
of  his  life,  he  was  the 
chief  factor  in  the  pol- 
itics of  his  state.  After 
a  short  service  as  state 
senator,  he  was  elected 
to  the  United  States 
Senate.  He  was  after- 
wards governor  of  New 
York.  He  espoused 
Jackson's  candidacy 
for  the  presidency,  and 
through  his  influence, 
New  York  cast  her 
deciding  vote  for  the 
old  warrior.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President 
Jackson  and  resigned  the  governorship  to  accept  it.  He 
resigned  the  secretaryship  after  two  years'  service,  and 


Martin   Van   Bur 


294  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

shortly  afterward  was  appointed  minister  to  England.  He  was 
elected  vice-president  for  Jackson's  second  term,  and  succeeded 
his  friend  to  the  presidency.  He  was  an  adept  in  practical 
politics,  being  expert  in  the  organization  and  management  of 
parties.  The  importance  of  New  York's  voice  in  national 
councils  made  Van  Buren,  who  was  the  sovereign  state's 
spokesman,  a  national  figure,  and  put  him  on  the  road  to  the 
highest  preferment.  But  he  proved  himself  a  statesman  as 
well  as  a  politician,  and  while  president,  he  performed  the 
duties  of  his  high  station  with  wisdom  and  courage. 

447.  The  Financial  Panic.  —  The  period  preceding  and 
embracing   Jackson's    administration    had  been  one  of  great 
prosperity.     Roads  and  canals  were  being  built  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.     There  was  also  much  railway  building.     Such 
enterprises  require  large  sums  of  money.     The  rapid  material 
development  of  the  country  gave  a  headlong  impulse  to  specu- 
lation and  trade.     Farms  multiplied,  cities  sprang  up,  banks 
were  everywhere.     Every  one  seemed  to  be  striving  to  become 
rich  and  to  be  succeeding  in  the  effort.     But  the  easy  success 
led  to  over-confidence,  to  recklessness,  and  to  ruin.     Specula- 
tion ran  wild ;    people  borrowed  too  much ;  the  banks  loaned 
too   willingly.     The   government   lost   large   sums   of   money 
through  the  failure  of  some  of  the  state  banks.     The  banks  of 
New  York  suspended  in  a  body,  and  numbers  of  banks  in 
other  parts  of  the  Union  followed.     Business  failures  were 
numerous,  trade  stopped,  factories  shut  down,  enterprises  were 
abandoned. 

448.  The  Sub-Treasury.  —  The  president  called  an  extra 
session  of  Congress  and  in  his  message  to  the  body  proposed  a 
new  treasury  plan.     He  advocated  the  government's  use  of 
specie1  only  in  its  transactions.     He  thought  it  best  to  cut 

1  Specie  means  coin  of  silver  or  gold.     Paper  money  is  only  the  government's 
promissory  note  to  pay  in  specie. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  295 

away  from  banks  altogether  and  urged  the  building  of  govern- 
ment vaults  for  the  safe  keeping  and  handling  of  government 
funds  by  the  government's  own  officers.  A  bill  embodying  the 
president's  plans  finally  passed,  in  1840,  and  was  the  beginning 
of  our  present  modified,  developed  system.  Vaults  and  safes 
were  supplied  in  the  treasury  building  at  Washington,  and  in 
six  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Union  "  sub-treasuries  "  were 
established  for  government  deposits  and  with  government 
officers  to  receive  and  disburse  funds. 

449.  Slavery.  —  The  abolition  agitation  at  the  North  con- 
tinued and  began  to  be  of  national  importance.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  abolition  societies  contained,  in  1837,  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  members.  New  abolition  papers  were 
established  and  some  of  the  Northern  states  made  new  laws 
that  reflected  the  new  ideas  of  the  emancipation  crusade. 
Elijah  Lovejoy,  editor  of  an  emancipation  sheet  at  Alton, 
Illinois,  while  defending  his  press  from  destruction  was  killed 
by  the  mob.  The  Abolitionists  used  the  incident  for  political 
purposes.  Wendell  Phillips  made  his  first  great  speech  in 
behalf  of  the  cause  to  which  he  afterward  devoted  his  wonder- 
ful oratorical  talents,  in  discussing  the  Lovejoy  matter  in  a 
public  meeting  in  Boston.1  Feeling  at  the  North  was  divided, 
and  the  extreme  wing  of  the  Abolitionists  was  as  bitterly  con- 
demned by  the  majority  of  its  own  section  as  by  the  Southern 
people.  Congress  again  refused  to  receive  the  numerous  eman- 
cipation petitions  that  came  pouring  in.  Southern  people 
became  more  and  more  restless  under  the  continued  and 
violent  agitation  of  the  Abolitionists.  When  a  Northern  mem- 

l  Phillips  was  a  man  of  culture  and  independent  character.  He  joined  the  ex- 
treme wing  of  the  Abolition  party  that  clamored  for  disunion.  He  refused  to  take 
the  oath  to  support  the  Constitution  of  his  country.  He  was  afterwards  a  champion 
of  the  temperance  movement,  of  the  labor  agitation,  of  the  woman's  rights  crusade. 
He  devoted  his  whole  life  to  the  advocacy  of  reforms  of  one  kind  or  another. 


296  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

her  of  Congress  made  a  bitter  abolition  speech  in  the  House, 
Southern  members  rose  in  a  body  to  leave  the  hall.1 

450.  Scientific  Progress This  period  of  four  years  saw 

the  beginning  of  some  things  that  greatly  aided  and  some  that 
revolutionized  the  methods  of  civilized  society  :  Morse  patented 
his  magnetic  telegraph ;  steam  vessels  began  to  make  regular 
and  quick  trips  across  the  Atlantic  ;   James  Smithson  left  a 
fortune  for  founding  a  scientific   institution   in  our  country  ; 
Daguerre's  sun-pictures  began  to  be  known  and  to  lead  the 
way  to  modern  photography ;  bold  explorers  sought  to  satisfy 
an  enlightened  curiosity  by  voyages  to  the  regions  of  the  north 
and  of  the  south  poles. 

451.  Summary.  —  Speculation  led  to  a  financial  panic  that  caused  busi- 
ness failures  all  over  the  country.     Public  enterprises  were  abandoned  and 
trade  became  stagnant.    The  president  called  an  extra  session  of  Congress 
and  proposed  a  new  plan  for  handling  the  public  funds.   We  were  to  guard 
and  control  our  own  money  in  vaults  in  the  treasury  building  in  Washing- 
ton and  in  sub-treasuries  in  different  parts  of  the  country.     Congress  ap- 
proved the  plan.     Many  people  joined  the  anti-slavery  crusade.     However, 
the  majority  of  the  people,  North  and  South,  condemned  the  abolition 
agitation.     This  was  a  period  of  scientific  advancement :  the  telegraph  was 
patented,  a   bequest  was    received   for   founding   a   scientific   institution, 
daguerreotypes  began  to  be  noticed. 

452.  Thought  Questions.  —  Give  two  reasons  for  Van  Buren's  failure 
to  be  reflected.     What  do  you  consider  the  most  important  event  of  this 
administration  ?     Why  ? 

1  "  Slade,  of  Vermont,  in  a  two  hours'  speech,  raked  the  institution  with  a  merci- 
less severity  such  as  that  body  had  never  experienced  before."  —  Schouler.  Wise, 
of  Virginia,  rose  to  his  feet  and  called  on  his  colleagues  to  leave  the  hall.  But 
Slade  was  ruled  out  of  order,  and  the  body,  amid  much  confusion,  quickly  adjourned. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


297 


HARRISON  AND  TYLER'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

One  Term:    1841-1845. 

453.  Harrison's   Death.  —  William    Henry    Harrison,    of 
Ohio,  the  hero  of  Tippecanoe,  and  a  veteran  of  the  War  of 
1812,  was  put  forward  by  the  Whigs  1  for  the  presidency.     The 
party  supported  him  with  the 

greatest  enthusiasm.  The 
most  was  made  of  his  quiet 
and  modest  way  of  living. 
He  was  called  the  "Log- 
Cabin  Candidate,"  and  a 
miniature  log-cabin,  with  a 
barrel  of  cider  at  the  door, 
was  a  part  of  every  popular 
demonstration  in  his  sup- 
port. Speakers  stirred  the 
pulse  of  the  people  with 
glowing  accounts  of  his  gal- 
lant military  services  in  the 
early  days.2  He  was  triumphantly  elected.  But  the  old  general 
was  already  in  feeble  health  and  the  excitement  of  the  campaign 
and  the  pressure  of  affairs  at  the  beginning  of  the  administra- 
tion proved  to  be  too  much  for  his  shattered  strength  to  endure. 
He  died  April  4,  after  having  been  president  but  a  month.3 

454.  Services  and  Character  of  John  Tyler.  —  John  Tyler, 
the    vice-president,    succeeded    to    the   presidency.      He    was 

1  The  National  Republicans  began  to  be  called  Whigs  during  Jackson's  presi- 
dency.    Clay  was  the  leader  —  for  a  number  of  years,  the  dictator  —  of  this  party. 

2  The  campaign  cry  was  "  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too."       See  §  386  for  an  ac- 
count of  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe. 

3  William  Henry  Harrison  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1773.     He  had  been  governor 
of  Indiana  Territory  twelve  years.     He  was  living  in  Ohio  at  the  time  of  his  election 
to  the  presidency. 


y  Harrison. 


298  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

born  in  1790,  and  was  the  son  of  a  distinguished  Virginia 
family.  He  had  but  to  show  ordinary  ability  to  be  sure  of 
political  preferment ;  but  he  was  possessed  of  much  more  than 
average  abilify.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legis- 
lature at  twenty-one  and  was  reflected  several  times.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  when  he  was  but  twenty-six  and  served 
two  terms.  In  1825,  he  was  elected  governor  of  his  state  and 

was  reelected  on  the  ex- 
piration of  his  first  term. 
But  before  the  expiration 
of  his  second  term,  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate.  He  sat  in  the  Sen- 
ate nine  years,  resigning  in 
1836,  because  he  was  not 
willing  to  vote  to  expunge 
the  resolution  of  censure  on 
President  Jackson  as  the 
Legislature  of  his  state  had 
instructed  him  to  do.  In 
1835,  he  was  put  forward 

John  T  |er  by  some  of  the  Democratic 

states    as    a   candidate  for 

the  vice-presidency,  but  was  defeated.  He  was  nominated  for 
the  same  position  on  the  Whig  ticket,  with  Harrison  for  the 
head  of  the  ticket,  in  1839,  and  this  time  he  was  elected. 

He  was  a  man  of  brilliant  talents,  and  of  independent  char- 
acter. His  acceptance  of  the  nomination  on  the  Whig  ticket, 
and  his  succession  to  the  presidency  because  of  his  nomina- 
tion, placed  him  in  a  false  position,  as  most  of  his  political 
career  had  been  spent  in  the  ardent  advocacy  of  the  principles 
of  the  Democratic  party. 

455.  The  Bank  Bills.  —  Congress,  after  the  sweeping  Whig 
victory,  hastened  to  repeal  the  sub-treasury  law  enacted  during 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  299 

the  last  administration.  This  left  the  government  without  any 
system  of  protecting  and  managing  its  funds ;  but  it  was  the 
purpose  of  Congress  to  provide  some  plan  at  once.  Trouble 
arose  over  the  selection  of  a  system.  Henry  Clay,  who 
was  by  common  consent  the  leader  of  the  party,  fell  back  on 
the  national  bank  plan  and  proposed  to  create  a  new  bank 
patterned  after  the  old  United  States  Bank  of  Philadelphia. 
His  bill,  creating  this  bank,  passed  both  houses  ;  but  the  pres- 
ident sent  it  back  with  his  veto.  A  second  bill,  changed  to 
meet  the  president's  wishes  or  to  force  his  approval,  favored 
by  Clay  and  the  Whig  following,  was  passed.  This  bill  was 
also  vetoed.  The  party,  with  Clay  at  its  head,  had  made  the 
creation  of  a  new  bank  part  of  its  policy,  and  there  was  so 
much  indignation  felt  at  the  president's  course  that  all  of  his 
cabinet,  except  Daniel  Webster,  secretary  of  state,  resigned 
their  places.  A  plan  proposed  by  the  president  did  not  get 
the  support  of  Congress,  and  throughout  his  administration 
the  control  and  preservation  of  the  funds  depended  upon  his 
own  judgment.  His  management  was  unusually  careful  and 
cautious  and  was  very  successful. 

456.  The  Ashburton  Treaty.  —  Recently  there  had  been 
many  collisions  between  American  citizens  and  British  subjects 
on  the  Canadian  borders  and  on  the  high  seas.  In  the  eyes  of 
many,  our  grievances  had  grown  to  such  an  extent  that  a  high- 
spirited  nation  must,  to  preserve  its  dignity,  insist  upon  apology 
and  redress.  War  with  Great  Britain  was  again  threatening, 
and  indeed  imminent.  After  many  attempts  to  adjust  the 
difficulties  between  the  two  countries  had  failed,  England  sent 
Lord  Ashburton  to  Washington  to  treat  with  our  secretary  of 
state  in  settlement  of  disputed  points.  An  agreement  was 
reached  on  the  most  pressing  matters  in  controversy.  The 
forty-ninth  parallel  was  decided  upon  as  a  line  of  boundary  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada,  from  the  Great  Lakes  to 


3OO  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  Rocky  Mountains ;  and  the  two  countries  entered  into  an 
agreement  to  return  criminals  escaped  from  one  country  to  the 
other  and  to  suppress  the  slave  trade  on  the  seas. 

457.  Tariff  Legislation.  —  The   compromise  tariff  bill  of 
1833  had  been  framed  to  provide  for  a  reduction  of  the  rate  of 
duty  year  by  year.     In  1842,  the  expenditures  of  the  govern- 
ment  exceeded   the    income.     The  Whigs   thought   that   the 
remedy  for  the  deficit  lay  in  a  higher  tariff,  and  accordingly  a 
bill  raising  the  rate  was  enacted. 

458.  The  Dorr  Rebellion. —  In  its  state  government,  Rhode 
Island  still  followed  the  charter  granted  it  by  Charles  II.  of 
England.       This    charter   granted    the    right  to  vote  only  to 
owners  of  real  estate  and  their  eldest  sons.     The  result  was  a 
limited  and  very  unequal  representation.    As  universal  suffrage 
was  the  method  in  every  other  state,  there  was  much  discon- 
tent felt  here.     Petitions  and  remonstrances  proving  useless, 
a   new   constitution    was  formed   and  Thomas  W.  Dorr  was 
elected  governor  (1842)  by  a  popular  vote,  most  of  the  votes, 
according  to  the  charter,  being  illegal.     The  charter  or  legal 
voters  also  elected  a  governor  and  contested  the  legality  of  the 
new  constitution  and  of  Dorr's  election.     Both  sides  took  up 
arms.     Dorr  was  arrested  and  tried  for  treason  and  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  life.     But  the  next  year  legal  voters  and 
delegates  elected  by  those  who  had  no  right  to  vote,  met  by 
common  consent  in  the  same  convention,  and  framed  a  new 
constitution    which   removed   most   of   the   restrictions    com- 
plained of.     Dorr,  after  a  short  imprisonment,  was  pardoned. 

459.  The  Mormons. — Joseph  Smith,  a  native  of  Vermont, 
produced  a  book  which,  he  said,  was  a  revelation  from  God. 
Mormon  was  represented  as  the  author  of  the  book,  and  the 
agent  of  the  divine  revelation.    With  this  book,  Smith  founded 
a  new  religious  sect.     The  people  who  adopted  the  faith  were 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  30 1 

called  Mormons.  The  Mormons  founded  a  settlement  at  Nau- 
voo,  Illinois.  One  of  their  doctrines  was  that  a  man  might 
have  several  wives  at  the  same  time.  Their  faith  and  practices 
were  severely  condemned  by  the  people  around  them.  In- 
dignation rose  to  such  a  pitch  that  in  a  riot  Smith  was  killed 
(1844).  Under  the  leadership  of  Brigham  Young,  the  Mor- 
mons emigrated  to  the  desert  region  near  Salt  Lake  in  Utah. 
By  bringing  the  water  from  the  mountains  to  their  barren 
territory  they  made  it  productive,  and  the  Mormons  were  soon 
among  the  most  prosperous  people  in  the  country.  Salt  LaTce 
City  became  a  rich  and  beautiful  city. 

460.  The  Telegraph.  —  Professor  Morse  had  already  secured 
a  patent  for  his  invention,  the  magnetic  telegraph,  but  he  was 
not  able  to  build  telegraph 

lines  to  test  his  instrument 
properly.  Aid  was  asked 
of  Congress.  After  years 
of  waiting,  $30,000  was  ap- 
propriated to  build  a  line 
between  Washington  and 
Baltimore,  a  distance  of 
forty  miles.  The  line  was 
completed  in  1844,  and  the 
message,  "What  hath  God 
wrought  ?  "  was  sent  from 
Washington  to  Baltimore 
by  Professor  Morse  in  the 
presence  of  many  distin- 
guished people.  There  are 

now  thousands  of  miles  of  telegraph  lines,  connecting,  in 
instant  communication,  cities  and  hamlets  all  over  the  world. 

461.  Extension  of  Territory :  The  Annexation  of  Texas. — 
The  vast  stretch  of   the  continent  bordering  on  the   Pacific 


302  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Ocean  and  the  Rio  Grande,  formerly  held  by  Spain,  now  be- 
longed to  Mexico,  that  nation  having  thrown  off  the  Spanish 
yoke.  This  territory  included  what  is  now  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  California,  Nevada, 
Utah,  and  part  of  Colorado.  Piece  by 
piece,  in  one  way  or  another,  it  all  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  United  States. 
Texas  was  our  first  acquisition  from  it. 


The  Texas  Revolution.  —  Mexico,  in 
an  effort  to  people  Texas,  had  offered 
grants  of  land  to  immigrants.  Some 
Southern  states  formed  Texas  colonies. 

The  "Lone  Star"   Flag. 

Moses    Austin    of    Missouri,   after   much 

discouragement,  obtained  permission  to  establish  a  colony  of 
three  hundred  American  families.  But  Austin  died  before  he 
could  execute  his  plan.  His  son,  Stephen  F.  Austin,  carried 
out  the  terms  of  the  contract,  gained  other  concessions  from 
the  Mexican  government,  and  established  in  the  province  about 
twelve  hundred  families  from  the  United  States.  In  the 
course  of  time,  settlers  from  the  United  States  became  more 
numerous  in  Texas  than  Mexicans.  These  pioneers  in  the 
wilderness  carried  with  them  the  love  of  freedom  and  the 
notions  of  government  they  had  imbibed  in  our  own  country. 
The  inevitable  followed.  Mexico's  arbitrary  and  imperious 
government  and  Santa  Anna's  attempt  to  overthrow  the  repub- 
lican constitution  forced  the  Texans  into  revolt.  Texas'  in- 
dependence was  declared  March  2,  1836.  But  the  Mexican 
yoke  was  thrown  off  only  after  a  heroic  struggle  on  the  part  of 
the  patriot  pioneers.  The  Texans  were  hardy,  liberty-loving 
settlers,  but  they  were  poorly  armed  and  without  military 
training.  The  Mexican  army  was  composed  of  regular  soldiers 
and  had  the  parent  state  to  sustain  it  with  supplies  and 
reinforcements.  The  Texans  fought  for  their  rights ;  the 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  303 

Mexicans  to  retain  their  possessions.  The  moral  advantage 
was  on  the  side  of  the  settlers  and  they  won  in  the  struggle. 
The  most  important  events  of  the  Texas  revolution  were  the 
siege  of  the  Alamo,  the  massacre  of  Goliad,  and  the  battle  of 
San  Jacinto.  One  hundred  and  forty-four  Texans,  taking 
refuge  in  the  Alamo  in  San  Antonio,  an  old  Spanish  build- 
ing combining  a  church  and  a  fort,  were  besieged  by  a  force 
of  four  thousand  Mexicans.  A  small  relief  party  of  thirty- 
two  Texans  made  their  way  to  the  inside  of  the  fort.  After 
eleven  days  of  resistance  the  fort  was  taken  by  storm  and 
every  Texan  soldier  killed  (March  6,  I836).1  Near  Goliad, 
Colonel  Fannin,  with  about  four  hundred  men,  was  surrounded 
and  attacked  by  a  force  of  more  than  two  thousand  Mexicans. 
The  Texans,  after  a  heroic  resistance,  felt  compelled  to  ask  for 
terms.  Formal  terms  of  surrender  were  agreed  upon  and  signed 
by  the  commanding  officers  on  both  sides.  The  patriot  prison- 
ers were  then  marched  back  to  Goliad.  In  a  few  days,  in 
barbarous  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty  and  of  the  rules 
of  civilized  warfare,  the  Mexicans  stood  the  captive  Texans  up 
in  rows  and  ruthlessly  shot  them  down.  At  San  Jacinto  (near 
the  present  city  of  Houston)  General  Sam  Houston,  with  seven 
hundred  Texans,  charging  with  the  battle-cry,  "  Remember  the 
Alamo,"  "  Remember  Goliad,"  routed  the  Mexican  army  of 
1500  (April  21,  1836).  Santa  Anna,  the  President  of  Mexico,2 
was  taken  prisoner  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  effected. 

The  Republic  of  Texas.  —  But  Mexico  did  not  acknowledge 
the  independence  of  Texas,  and  made  unsuccessful  efforts 
afterward  to  conquer  the  state.  The  Texans  set  up  a  repub- 

1  Two  American  women,  a  child  of  each,  a  Mexican  woman  and  a  negro  servant 
escaped  the  massacre. 

2  The  blood  of  the  Texans  butchered  in  the  Alamo  and  at  Goliad  cried  out  for 
vengeance,  but  prisoners  were  treated  in  a  humane  manner.    Santa  Anna,  in  due 
time,  was  released  and  later  served  as  a  Mexican  officer  in  the  war  between  Mexico 
and  the  United  States. 


3O4  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

lican  government  modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States.  The 
United  States  and  England  and  France  acknowledged  her 
independence.  During  the  nine  years  of  her  existence  as  an 
independent  republic,  Texas  had  the  following  presidents :  (i) 
David  G.  Burnet  (provisional);  (2)  Sam  Houston;  (3)  M.  B. 
Lamar;  (4)  Sam  Houston;  (5)  Anson  Jones.  Henry  Smith 
acted  as  provisional  governor  during  the  earlier  part  of  the 
revolution. 

The  State  of  Texas.  —  But  it  was  the  desire  of  the  Texans 
to  be  annexed  to  the  United  States,  and  advances  looking 
toward  this  union  had  been  made  in  Jackson's,  Van  Buren's, 
and  Tyler's  administrations.  The  United  States,  however, 
hung  back  ;  so  long  as  Mexico  regarded  Texas  as  only  a 
revolted  province,  yet  to  be  brought  back  to  allegiance,  any 
interference  on  the  part  of  our  country  could  but  bring  on 
a  war  with  Mexico.  But  additions  to  the  population  of  Texas 
from  the  United  States  continued,  and  the  feeling  in  favor 
of  annexation  grew  stronger.  President  Tyler  was  in  favor 
of  annexation  and  encouraged  the  Texans  to  urge  their 
propositions.  Finally,  the  question,  became  a  national  issue. 
Against  the  project,  it  was  urged  that  Texas  would  add  a  vast 
territory  to  the  slave  section  of  our  country ;  that  we  would  in- 
volve ourselves  in  a  war  with  Mexico  by  annexing  her  revolted 
province ;  and  that  we  had  no  moral  right  to  Texas  until 
Mexico  renounced  her  claims.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  held 
that  the  balance  between  the  free  and  the  slave  territory  ought 
to  be  preserved  by  this  annexation ;  that  the  union  would  give 
us  a  vast  fertile  tract  to  add  to  our  domain  ; 1  and  that  Texas 
had  fairly  earned  her  independence,  which  independence 
Mexico  never  would  formally  recognize  if  left  to  herself.  The 

1  Texas  contains  more  than  262,000  square  miles  of  territory.  It  is  larger  than 
all  the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States  together.  Daniel  Webster  said  it 
was  so  large  a  bird  could  not  fly  over  it  in  a  week. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


305 


objections  came  chiefly  from  the  North.  The  Southern  peo- 
ple were  in  favor  of  annexation.  -  Polk,  the  candidate  put  for- 
ward for  the  presidency  by  the  Democrats,  was  in  favor  of 
annexation.  Clay,  the  Whig  candidate,  was  opposed  to  it. 
Polk  was  elected  and  his  success  was  due  largely  to  his  posi- 
tion on  this  matter.  As  soon  as  the  result  of  the  election  was 


known,  a  bill  annexing  Texas  was  brought  up  in  Congress, 
was  passed,  and  was  signed  by  President  Tyler  just  three  days 
before  the  expiration  of  his  term. 

462.  Florida  and  Iowa  Admitted.  —  During  the  last  year 
of  this  administration,  Congress  admitted  Florida  and  Iowa  to 
the  Union  as  states  :  but  Iowa  did  not  comply  with  the  terms 
and  become  a  state  till  a  year  later. 

463.  Summary.  —  President  Harrison  died  after  having  served  but  a 
month,  and  John  Tyler,  vice-president,  became  president.     The  sub-treas- 
ury bill  of  Van  Buren's  administration  was  repealed.     The  Whig  party, 
which  had  elected  Tyler,  passed  bills  through  Congress  establishing  a  new 
national  bank.    The  president  vetoed  the  bills.    Congress  would  not  adopt 
the  plan  proposed  by  the  president.     The  funds  were  governed  only  by  the 
president's  judgment  and  care.     The  Ashburton  Treaty  settled  the  north- 


306  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

ern  boundary  of  the  United  States  as  far  west  as  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  forty-ninth  parallel  was  made  the  dividing  line.  The  tariff  rate  was 
raised.  The  Dorr  Rebellion  in  Rhode  Island  grew  out  of  the  desire  of  the 
people  for  universal  suffrage.  The  old  charter  was  set  aside  and  suffrage 
was  granted  as  in  other  states.  A  telegraph  line  was  built  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore  and  the  first  message  was  sent  in  1844.  Texas, 
a  Mexican  province,  had  been  colonized  from  our  Southern  states.  The 
colonists  revolted  and  in  1836  gained  their  independence.  The  people  of 
Texas  wished  to  annex  their  republic  to  the  United  States.  In  the  presi- 
dential election,  Polk,  who  was  in  favor  of  annexation,  defeated  Clay,  who 
was  opposed  to  it.  Texas  was  annexed  three  days  before  Tyler's  term 
expired.  Florida  and  Iowa  were  admitted  during  the  last  year  (1845),  but 
Iowa  did  not  become  a  state  till  one  year  later. 

464.  Thought  Questions.  —  Contrast  Tyler's  popularity  before  and 
after  his  inauguration  as  president.  Account  for  the  change.  Mention 
the  important  tariff  bills  passed  in  the  last  three  administrations.  How 
did  the  acquisition  of  Texas  differ  from  the  previous  acquisitions  of  terri- 
tory ?  What  European  first  traveled  through  Texas  ?  By  whom  was  the 
first  attempt  at  settlement  made  ?  By  what  different  nations  has  Texas 
been  claimed  ?  What  do  you  consider  the  most  important  event  in  this 
administration  ? 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


307 


FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

One  Term:    1845-1849. 

465.   Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President. — 

James  K.  Polk  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  in  1795,  and  lived 
to  the  age  of  fifty-four ;  through  most  of  his  life,  his  home  was 
in  Tennessee,  to  which  state  the  family  had  removed  in  his 
boyhood.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Tennessee  Legislature 
at  the  age  of  28.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Andrew  Jackson, 
and  assisted  in  electing  this 
illustrious  Tennesseean  to 
the  United  States  Senate. 
He  became  a  congressman, 
and  had  fourteen  years'  con- 
secutive service.  He  was 
twice  elected  speaker  of  the 
House.  After  retiring  from 
Congress,  he  was  elected 
governor  of  his  state.  He 
had  not  been  publicly  an- 
nounced as  a  candidate  for 

the  presidency  when  the  Democratic  convention  met  in  1844  ; 
but  none  of  the  prominent  candidates  could  secure  the  neces- 
sary two-thirds  vote,  so  Mr.  Polk  was  put  forward  by  his 
friends  as  a  compromise  candidate  and  was  nominated.  Polk 
was  a  man  of  ability,  careful  and  painstaking  in  investigation, 
prompt  and  decided  in  execution.  In  his  inaugural,  he  named 
four  measures  which  he  wished  to  signalize  his  administration.1 
He  accomplished  all  of  them. 

1  "  There  are  four  great  measures  which  are  to  be  the  measures  of  my  administra- 
tion :  One,  a  reduction  of  the  tariff ;  another,  the  independent  treasury ;  a  third,  the 
settlement  of  the  Oregon  boundary  question,  and  lastly,  the  acquisition  of  Califor- 
nia."—  Schouler's  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  IV,  p.  498, 


308 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


466.  The  Oregon  Boundary.  —  The  convention  which  nomi- 
nated Polk  proclaimed  as  one  of  the  policies  of  the  party  the 
"re-occupation  of  Oregon."     The  northwestern  boundary  of 
the  United  States  had  never  been  determined.1     The  United 

States  insisted  that  the  line 
should  run  at  54°  40'  north 
latitude,  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Alaska,  while  Great 
Britain  contended  that  the 
Columbia  River,  in  latitude 
46°,  was  the  proper  bound- 
ary. There  had  already  been 
much  discussion  of  the  mat- 
ter; during  Folk's  adminis- 
tration negotiations  were 
again  begun,  which  were  finally  concluded  by  an  agreement 
that  the  parallel  of  49°  should  mark  the  boundary  of  the  United 
States  on  the  west  side  of  the  mountains  as  it  did  on  the  east 
side  (§  456).  These  negotiations  bring  to  mind  the  history 
of  Oregon  —  a  history  instructive  in  the  methods  of  Western 
exploration  and  settlement. 

467.  The  Oregon  Trail. —  In  1791,  Robert  Gray,  command- 
ing a  trading-vessel  fitted  out  by  some  enterprising  merchants 
of  Boston,  discovered  the  mouth  of  a  river  on  our  western 
coast  and  sailed  up  its  course  fourteen  miles.     He  named  the 
river  "Columbia,"  which  was  the  name  of  the  ship  he  com- 
manded.2    During  the  last  months  of  1805,  Lewis  and  Clarke 
(§376)  explored  the  Columbia  from  its  sources  in  the  mountains 

1  A  treaty  made  in  1818  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  provided 
for  the  joint  occupation  by  the  two  powers  of  the  region  between  the  Russian  terri- 
tory of  Alaska  and  the  Spanish  territory  of  California. 

2  The  owners  of  the  Columbia  intended  that  she  should  visit  our  western  coast, 
buy  a  cargo  of  furs  from  the  Indians  and  traders,  then  sail  across  to  China  and  ex- 
change the  furs  for  tea  and  return  to  Boston.     After  an  absence  of  three  years,  the 
Columbia  returned  to  Boston  having  made  the  voyage  as  planned. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


309 


to  its  mouth  in  the  Pacific.  In  1808,  the  Missouri  Fur  Company 
of  St.  Louis  was  organized  for  the  purpose  of  opening  up  trade 
with  this  Columbia  River  region.  An  agent  sent  into  this 
country  established  a  trading  post,  Fort  Henry,  on  the  Lewis 
River.  Mr.  John  Jacob  Astor,  a  rich  merchant  of  New  York 
City,  became  interested  in  this  Northwestern  territory  and  put 
in  operation  a  liberal  plan  for  establishing  trading  posts  on  the 


Columbia.  In  1810,  he  sent  a  company  of  men  around  by 
Cape  Horn  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  another  company 
from  St.  Louis,  overland,  to  unite  with  the  first.  The  two  com- 
panies, uniting  in  1 8 1 2 ,  formed  a  settlement  which,  in  honor  of  the 
patron  of  the  undertaking,  they  called  Astoria.1  A  third  com- 
pany sent  out  from  New  York  on  shipboard  reached  Astoria  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  same  year  (1812).  But  the  English  coveted 
this  same  region  and  expeditions  from  Canada  sought  to  occupy 
the  country.  A  bitter  competition  sprang  up  between  the  settlers 
from  the  United  States  and  those  from  Canada.  When  the 

1  See  Irving's  "  Astoria." 


3  IO  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

news  of  the  War  of  1812  reached  this  remote  region,  the 
officers  of  the  Astor  company  sold  their  interests  to  the  Eng- 
lish company  and  retired  from  the  field.  After  peace  was  de- 
clared, though  there  was  no  organized  movement,  an  unnoticed 
immigration  of  adventurous  trappers  and  settlers  to  the  Oregon 
region  began  and  continued  for  years ;  so  that  gradually  trading 
from  this  region  was  resumed  and  settlement  of  it  proceeded.1 
In  1835,  Marcus  Whitman  went  with  a  "small  party  of  mission- 
aries to  the  Columbia  region.  In  the  next  year,  Whitman  went 
through  to  Fort  Boise,  on  the  Lewis  River,  in  a  wagon,  demon- 
strating the  possibility  of  wagon-train  emigration  to  the  Oregon 
country.  In  1840,  the  settlers  in  Oregon  numbered  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty.2  The  agents  of  the  English  fur  companies 
did  everything  in  their  power  to  prevent  the  settlement  of  the 
region  from  the  United  States.  But  finding  that  settlement 
continued  nevertheless,  they  determined  to  meet  settlement 
from  the  United  States  with  settlement  from  Canada.  Arrange- 
ments were  made  to  bring  in  a  body  of  emigrants  from  Canada. 
Dr.  Whitman,  hearing  of  this  proposed  invasion,  and  knowing 
that  the  plan,  if  intelligently  executed,  would  take  Oregon  from 
the  United  States,  resolved  to  save  the  region  for  which  he  had 
done  so  much.  On  horseback,  he  returned  to  St.  Louis  and 
then  proceeded  to  Washington.  The  Ashburton  treaty  (§  456) 
had  just  been  concluded  and  the  boundary  of  Oregon  was  .still 
left  open.  Dr.  Whitman  made  up  a  train  of  two  hundred  wagons 
and  led  it  to  Oregon.  When  Polk  became  president  in  1845, 
our  people  had  such  a  hold  on  this  region  that  the  cry  was 
"  fifty-four  forty  or  fight."  The  final  settlement  of  the  boundary 
at  49°  threw  the  Columbia  River  well  within  our  territory. 

1  In  1832,  Captain  Bonneville  led  a  wagon  train  across  the  Wind  River  Moun- 
tains into  the  Green  River  Valley.    See  Irving's  "Captain  Bonneville."   In  the  same 
year,  Nathaniel  J.  Wyeth  led  a  party  from  New  England  to  Fort  Vancouver.   Wyeth 
afterward  led  a  second  and  larger  expedition  to  the  same  region  and  began  settle- 
ment in  the  Willamette  Valley.    See  "  Nathaniel  J.  Wyeth  and  the  Struggle  for  Ore- 
gon" in  Harper's  Magazine  for  November,  1892. 

2  Drake,  "  The  Making  of  the  Great  West." 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  3!  I 

WAR    WITH  MEXICO. 

468.  The  Annexation  of  Texas :    the  Beginning  of  the 
War  with  Mexico. —  On  June  23,  1845,  Texas  accepted  the 
terms    of    admission    fixed    by    the    national    Congress   the 
previous  March,  and  became  one  of  the  states.     The  Texans 
claimed  the  Rio  Grande  as  the  western  boundary  of  their  new 
state,  while  the  Mexicans  insisted  that  the  Nueces  River  was  the 
northeastern  boundary  of  Mexico.     The  strip  between  the  two 
rivers  was  about  a  hundred  miles  across  and  contained  some 
valuable  territory.     The  United  States  upheld  Texas  in  claim- 
ing the  Rio  Grande  boundary  and  prepared  to  help  maintain  it. 
General  Zachary  Taylor,  with  a  force  of  about  five  thousand 
men,  was  directed  to  occupy  and  hold  the  disputed  territory. 
He  established  a  de'pot  of  supplies  at  Point  Isabel,  on  the  Gulf, 
and  then,  with  a  part  of  his  men,  marched  a  few  miles  up  the 
Texas  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  built  Fort  Brown  opposite 
Matamoras.     Detachments  from  the  Mexican  army,  concen- 
trated at  Matamoras,  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  both  above  and 
below  Fort  Brown.     On  April  23,  1846,  the  detachment  above 
the   fort   fell  in   with   a  company  of   our   troops,    killed    and 
wounded    sixteen  of   our   countrymen,  and    captured   the    re- 
mainder of  the  party.     The  message  which  the  president  sent 
to  Congress  on  May  n,  1846,  stated  that:    "War  exists,  and 
notwithstanding  all  our  efforts  to  avoid  it,  exists  by  the  act  of 
Mexico  herself."     Congress  at  once  declared  war,  and  voted 
money  and  called  for  volunteers  to  carry  on  the  campaign. 

469.  The  First  Battles  :  Palo  Alto ;   Resaca  de  la  Palma. 

—  Taylor  prepared  to  strengthen  his  position  at  Fort  Brown. 
Fearing  that  the  Mexicans  would  cut  him  off  from  Point  Isabel, 
his  base  of  supplies,  he  fell  back  with  the  body  of  his  troops  to 
strengthen  the  defenses  of  this  depot  on  the  Gulf.  The  Mexi- 
cans in  Matamoras,  having  been  witnesses  of  this  movement  to 
the  rear,  mistook  its  cause  and  sent  a  large  force  across  the 


312  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

river  to  capture  Fort  Brown,  which  had  been  left  with  a  garri- 
son of  about  three  hundred  men.  Taylor  completed  his  work 
as  rapidly  as  possible  and  with  a  force  of  two  thousand  men 
began  his  return  to  Fort  Brown.  When 
he  reached  Palo  Alto,  near  the  fort,  his 
forces  found  themselves  suddenly  con- 
fronted by  six  thousand  Mexicans  pre- 
pared to  give  battle.  The  engagement 
that  followed  was  a  victory  for  the 
Americans.  The  Mexicans  fell  back. 
The  next  day  (May  9),  at  Resaca  de  la 
Palma,  within  three  miles  of  Fort  Brown, 
the  Mexicans  again  intercepted  the  Americans  and  forced  an 
engagement.  The  Mexican  army  was  completely  routed,  and 
this  time,  in  its  retreat,  did  not  stop  till  it  was  safely  across  the 
river  and  under  the  protection  of  the  guns  of  Matamoras. 

470.  Invasion  of  Mexico :  Capture  of  Monterey ;  Battle 
of  Buena  Vista.  —  A  few  days  after  these  battles  on  Texas 
soil,  General  Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and  captured 
Matamoras.  He  then  pushed  forward  towards  the  interior  of 
Mexico.  He  was  delayed  about  four  months  waiting  for  reen- 
forcements  and  necessary  provisions.  With  an  army  of  6600 
men,  he  began  the  siege,  September  21,  of  the  strongly  fortified 
town  of  Monterey,  which  was  defended  by  12,000  Mexican 
troops.  After  three  days  of  hard  fighting,  the  town,  with  its 
military  stores,  was  captured  and  the  Mexicans  were  allowed 
to  evacuate.  The  capture  of  Monterey  was  a  great  victory, 
because  it  was  won  against  such  odds  both  of  numbers  and 
position. 

Taylor's  next  engagement  was  at  Buena  Vista.  General 
Scott,  who  had  been  sent  to  Mexico  as  commander-in-chief  of 
our  forces,  and  who  meant  to  push  forward  rapidly  from  the 
coast  into  the  heart  of  the  country,  had  detached  most  of 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


313 


Taylor's  troops  to  his  own  support  in  the  coming  campaign. 
Santa  Anna,  who  was  now  the  commander  of  the  Mexican 
forces,  had  already  gathered  an  army  of  20,000  men  for  the 
purpose  of  attacking  Taylor.  Hearing,  now,  of  the  removal 
of  the  main  part  of  Taylor's  army  to  another  part  of  the 
country  to  aid  General  Scott,  this  shrewd  Mexican  captain 
moved  forward  rapidly  with  the  intention  of  annihilating  the 
remnant  of  General  Taylor's  forces.  The  opposing  armies 
(20,000  Mexicans,  about  7500  Americans)  met  at  a  pass  in  the 
mountains  near  Buena  Vista  (February  27,  1847),  and  after  a 
day's  desperate  fighting  the  Mexicans  were  defeated  and  driven 
from  the  field. 

471.  General  Scott's  Campaign.  —  As  has  been  said,  it  was 
General  Scott's  purpose  to  march  on  to  the  heart  of  the 
enemy's  country.  But  he  had  to  begin  at  the  coast.  On  the 
gth  of  March,  with  his  own  troops  and  the  reinforcements  from 
Taylor's  army  (numbering  12,000  men  in  all)  he  began  the 
siege  of  Vera  Cruz.  The 
city  surrendered  on  the 
27th  of  the  same  month. 

The  army  now  began 
its  march  towards  the  capi- 
tal. Santa  Anna,  with  a 
large  force,  took  up  a  posi- 
tion in  the  rocky  pass  of 
Cerro  Gordo,  in  the  path  of  our  army,  prepared  to  resist  its 
further  progress.  The  Mexicans  were  routed  from  their  posi- 
tion, three  thousand  of  them  were  taken  prisoners,  and  military 
stores  sufficient  to  equip  an  army  were  captured  (April  18, 
1847).  On  the  march  forward  there  were  many  minor  engage- 
ments. The  Mexicans  fortified  every  strong  position  along  the 
route  our  army  must  take.  But  one  by  one  these  positions 
were  carried,  and  the  advanced  Mexican  troops  were  rapidly 


o~To     so     so 


314  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

forced  back  on  the  city.  On  September  14,  1847,  tne  capital 
itself  was  taken  and  the  American  flag  waved  triumphantly  over 
the  city  of  the  Montezumas. 

The  treaty  which  followed  involved  even  more  territory  than 
that  of  Texas,  and  some  account  of  the  simultaneous  movement 
of  the  West  must  be  given. 

472.  The  Acquisition  of  California. —  "  California  was,  in 
1846,  an  outlying  and  neglected  Mexican  province."  1  It  was 
believed  in  the  United  States  that  England  coveted  this  Mexi- 
can province.  It  is  certain  that  the  authorities  of  the  United 
States  hoped  to  annex  it  to  our  own  country  and  were  willing 
to  aid  in  bringing  about  the  thing  they  wished.  Captain  John 
C.  Fremont,  who  had  twice  before  led  exploring  expedi- 
tions across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  reached  California  with 
a  third  party,  January,  1846.  It  was  undoubtedly  Captain  Fre- 
mont's purpose  to  do  what  he  could  towards  acquiring  Califor- 
nia.2 The  tie  between  the  province  and  the  parent  country 
was  very  weak;  England,  France,  and  our  own  country  were 
jealously  and  covetously  watching  the  course  of  events,  antici- 
pating dismemberment ;  as  California  was  in  the  line  of  our 
national  development,  and  as  there  were  already  many  of  our 
countrymen  settled  in  the  northern  part,  it  was  felt  that  we  had 
the  best  chance  and  the  best  right.  Captain  Fremont  con- 

1  Royce, "  California."   Following  this  sentence,  is  an  excellent  description  of  Cali- 
fornia at  that  time :  we  take  space  to  give  a  brief  passage  from  it.    "  Its  missions, 
once  prosperous,  had  had  their  estates  in  large  part  secularized  during  the  latter 
years,  had  fallen  into  decay,  were  now  helpless  and  sometimes  in  ruins.    The  mission 
Indians  had  in  large  part  disappeared.     The  Church  was  no  longer  a  power.     The 
white  population  was  made  up  principally  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  colonists,  whose 
chief  industry  was  raising  cattle  for  the  hides  and  tallow,  and  whose  private  lives 
were  free,  careless,  and  on  the  whole,  as  this  world  goes,  moderately  charming  and 
innocent." 

2  There  had  been  much  controversy  as  to  the  extent  of  Captain  Fremont's  author- 
ity and  instructions  from  the  government ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  at  all  as  to  his 
own  intention,  which  was  to  take  the  shortest  possible  road  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
province.  —  See  Royce  and  H.  H.  Bancroft. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


315 


Old  Butter's  Fort. 


earned  himself  only  about  the  chance.  Soon  after  the  captain 
encamped  in  the  vicinity  of  the  American  settlers  in  the  Sutter's 
Fort  region,  they  began  to  hear  alarming  rumors  of  a  move- 
ment on  the  part  of  the 
Mexican  government  to 
expel  them  from  Califor- 
nian  territory.  Anticipat- 
ing this  hostile  movement 
against  them,  the  set- 
tlers organized  a  force, 
marched  over  to  the  mili- 
tary post  of  Sonoma,  cap- 
tured it,  sent  some  of  its  officers  as  prisoners  to  Sutter's  Fort, 
raised  a  flag  on  which  the  figure  of  a  bear  had  been  rudely  drawn 
with  berry  juice,  and  declared  a  free  and  independent  republic 
(June  14,  1846).  Captain  Fremont  at  once  became  the  leader 
of  the  Bear  Flag  Revolutionists. 
The  towns  and  posts  around  So- 
noma were  taken  almost  without  a 
struggle.  But  at  this  time,  news  of 
the  United  States'  declaration  of 
war  against  Mexico  reached  the 
western  coast,  and  on  July  7,  Com- 
modore Sloat,  whose  ships  had  been 
hovering  along  the  coast,  took  pos- 
session of  Monterey  (a  short  dis- 
tance below  San  Francisco)  and  raised  the  flag  of  the  United 
States.  Northern  California,  now  under  the  control  of  Fremont, 
took  down  the  Bear  flag  and  raised  the  flag  of  the  United  States. 
The  conquest  of  California  was  speedily  and  easily  accomplished. 

473.  New  Mexico  Taken. —  After  war  was  declared  against 
Mexico,  General  Kearney  was  sent  with  a  force  to  make  a  con- 
quest of  New  Mexico.  He  did  not  meet  with  much  opposition. 


3l6  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

On  August  1 8,  1846,  our  flag  was  raised  over  Santa  Fe,  and 
New  Mexico  was  declared  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

474.  The  Treaty ;  New  State The  treaty  which  followed 

(in   February,   1848)  the  fall  of  Mexico  City  gave  us  Texas, 
California,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  parts  of  New  Mexico  and  Colo- 
rado, nearly  a  million   square  miles  of  territory.     In   return, 
the  United  States  agreed  to  pay  Mexico  $15,000,000,  and  to 
pay  claims  of  our  citizens  against  Mexico  to  the  amount  of 
$3,250,000. 

In  1848,  Wisconsin,  the  fifth  and  last  state  from  the  North- 
west Territory,  was  admitted  as  a  state. 

475.  Gold  in  California.  —  There  were  many  things — a 
fertile  soil,  a  mild  and  equable  climate,  a  commanding  position 
upon  the  western  coast  —  which  made  the  United  States  wish 
for  California.     But  between  the  time  of  its  conquest  and  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  with  Mexico —  after  we  had  forcibly  taken 
California,  but  before  Mexico  had  formally  relinquished  it  — 
gold  was  discovered  on  the  rivers,  and  it  was  soon  apparent  that 
California  was  a  prize  rich  beyond  our  most  sanguine  expecta- 
tions.    In  January,  1848,  a  workman  in  deepening  a  mill-race 
with  a  flood  of  water,  saw  washed  upon  the  banks  of  the  seeth- 
ing stream  little  shining  particles  that  he   thought  might  be 
gold.     A  quantity  of  the  metal,  tested  in  a  rude  way  by  Captain 
Sutter,  the  owner  of  the  mill,  bore  the  test  so  well  that  all 
doubts  were  dismissed.     Though  an  attempt  was  made  to  keep 
the  discovery  a  secret,  it  was  revealed  in  some  way  and  the 
news  spread  like  wildfire.     The  first  prospectors  found  gold  in 
many  other  places  in  the  same  region.     The  native  population 
abandoned   all  other  pursuits  for  gold-digging  ;    stores  were 
locked   up,   shops  were  closed,   fields   were    left   half-plowed, 
crops  remained  unharvested.     As  the  news  spread,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  whole  western  coast,  Indians,  Chinese,  Mexicans, 
and  Americans,  flocked  to  the  scene  of  the  discovery. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  317 

476.  The  Gold  Fever  of  1849. —  It  was  not  till  late  in  1848 
that  the  news  reached  the  eastern  states.     But  when    it   did 
reach  there,  and  when  authentic  reports  from  its  California 
representatives  were  published  by  the  government,  excitement 
ran  as  high  here  as  on  the  western  coast.     Great  numbers  of 
people  began  preparations  to  go  to  California  in  the  spring. 
There  were  three  routes  from  the  East  to  this  El  Dorado  of  the 
West :  one,  the  longest,  around  Cape  Horn ;  another,  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  across  it,  and  up  the  western  coast;  the 
third,  overland  across  the  continent.       Soon,  along  all  these 
routes,  there  were  streams  of  sanguine  pilgrims,  brave  to  dare 
any  dangers  in  the  search  for  the  golden  fleece.     At  the  close 
of  the  year  (1849),  there  were  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
people  in  California.     San  Francisco  had  grown  —  without  rail- 
roads —  from  a  village  of  two  thousand  people  to  a  city  of 
twenty  thousand,  and  Sacramento  from  a  group  of  four  houses 
to  a  town  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants.     Some  of  these  adven- 
turous pioneers,  "forty-niners,"  as  they  were  called,  won  fabu- 
lous fortunes;   many,   modest  ones;   and  the  procession  they 
began  marched  on  for  several  years  after  this. 

477.  Summary.  —  The  northern  boundary  of  Oregon  was  fixed  at  the 
forty-ninth  parallel.     Texas  and  Mexico  had  a  dispute  over  the  western 
boundary  of  Texas.     The  United  States  sent  troops  to  help  maintain  the 
claim  of  Texas.    War  followed  (1846-1848).     The  Americans  were  victori- 
ous in  all  the  battles  and  eventually  captured   the  capital,  Mexico  City. 
The  treaty  which  followed  gave  us  a  large  western  territory :  Texas,  Cali- 
fornia, Utah,  Arizona,  and  part  of  Colorado.     California  and  New  Mexico 
were  won  by  separate  campaigns ;  John  C.  Fremont  led  the  expedition  to 
California,  General  Kearney  that  to  New  Mexico.     Gold  was  discovered  in 
California  in  1848.     Rapid  emigration  to  the  territory  followed. 

478.  .Thought  Questions.  —  Name  the  men  who  did  the  most  toward 
the  acquisition  of  Oregon  by  the  United  States.     How  do  you  account  for 
the  failure  of  the  Mexican  troops  to  win  a  single  battle  in  the  war  with  the 
United  States  ?     Contrast  the  success  of  our  invasion  of  Mexico  with  the 
failure  of  our  invasion  of  Canada.    Give  reason  for  the  difference.     Whom 
do  you   consider  the  greatest  general  in  the  Mexican  war.     Show  how 
Jefferson's  purchase  of  Louisiana  led  to  the  war  with  Mexico. 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


TAYLOR'S  AND  FILLMORE'S  ADMINISTRATIONS. 

One  Term:    1849-1853. 

479.  Services  and  Characters  of  the  Presidents.  —  Zachary 
Taylor  was  born  in  Virginia  (1784),  but  his  father  removed  to 
Kentucky  and  took  up  residence  there  while  Zachary  was  yet 
an  infant.  The  boy  grew  up  under  the  pioneer  conditions  of 

this  western  state.  In  his 
youth  he  had  very  little  for- 
mal education  and  saw  little 
of  the  world.  His  father 
had  been  a  soldier  in  the 
Revolutionary  army  and  an 
older  brother  was  an  officer 
in  the  United  States  army. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-four 
he  entered  the  army  him- 
self, became  a  lieutenant 
and  afterward  a  captain. 
In  the  War  of  1812,  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the 
defense  of  one  of  the  out- 
posts in  Indiana.  In  the 
decisive  battle  against  Black  Hawk  and  his  warriors  (§  438) 
Taylor  commanded  the  troops  of  the  regular  army.  His  great- 
est early  distinction  was  won  by  his  wonderful  march  of  a 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  into  the  everglades  of  Florida  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  Seminoles.  The  Indians  who  had  eluded  so 
many  officers  did  not  escape  him.  He  penetrated  to  their 
chief  village  and  defeated  them  in  a  bloody  battle.  After 
a  year's  prosecution  of  the  war  in  different  parts  of  this  Florida 
wilderness,  the  chiefs  were  forced  to  surrender ;  and  with  their 
people,  they  were  removed  across  the  Mississippi.  An  account 


Zachary  Taylor. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


319 


of  the  officer's  brilliant  work  in  the  Mexican  War  has  already 
been  given.  He  was  nominated  for  president  by  the  Whig  party. 

Though  almost  wholly  uneducated,  the  president  had  learned 
in  a  stern,  though  narrow,  school  of  experience.  He  was 
frank,  sincere,  and  in- 
corruptible, brave  and 
determined.  He  gained 
the  presidency  because 
of  his  military  reputa- 
tion; but  he  won  the 
respect  of  the  nation  as 
the  highest  civil  officer 
of  the  land.  He  died 
in  July,  1850,  after  one 
year's  service  as  presi- 
dent, and  the  vice-presi- 
dent succeeded  to  the 
presidency. 

Millard   Fillmore  was 

Millard    Fillmore. 

born    in    New   York    in 

1800.  He  began  the  practice  of  law  soon  after  reaching  his 
majority.  After  serving  a  few  terms  in  the  state  Legislature, 
he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1830,  and  was  reflected  three 
times.  He  was  comptroller  of  his  state  when  he  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  vice-presidency. 

480.  The  Problem  of  the  Administration. —  The  problem 
of  this  administration  was  the  proper  organization  of  the  vast 
territory  acquired  from  Mexico  during  the  previous  administra- 
tion. At  first,  Congress  failed  to  make  any  provision  for  the 
government  of  California,  and  for  nearly  two  years,  the  prov- 
ince rested  under  the  control  of  military  officers  appointed 
before  the  treaty  was  signed.  But  President  Taylor  wished  to 
have  both  California  and  New  Mexico  become  organic  parts  of 


32O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  Union  as  soon  as  possible.  He  sent  agents  to  both  territo- 
ries for  the  purpose  of  urging  the  people  to  ask  for  admission, 
and  of  advising  them  as  to  the  best  method  to  reach  this  end. 
In  California,  a  constitutional  convention  was  called  by  the 
military  governor.  The  constitution  which  it  framed  was 
adopted  almost  unanimously  by  the  people  (November  13, 
1849),  and  state  officers  were  elected.  Under  this  organiza- 
tion and  this  constitution,  the  territory  asked  for  admission  as 
a  state.  It  sent  congressmen  and  senators  to  Washington.  A 
clause  in  its  constitution,  prohibiting  slavery,  caused  trouble 
and  delay.  The  old  controversy  as  to  whether  new  territory 
should  enter  the  Union  "  free  "  or  "  slave "  arose  again  with 
greater  intensity  and  bitterness. 

481.  The  Conflicting  Opinions.  —  The  extreme  party  at  the 
North  insisted  that  slavery  should  be  prohibited  in  all  the  terri- 
tory acquired  from  Mexico.1   As  heretofore,  some  of  the  South- 
ern leaders  urged  that  the  territories  should  decide  for  them- 
selves whether  they  should  enter  the  Union  as  "  slave "  or 
"  free  "  states.     Others  wanted  the  line  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise drawn  to  the  Pacific. 

482.  The  Compromise  of  1850. —  Henry  Clay,  "The  Great 
Peace-Maker,"   brought    forward    in    January   a   compromise 
measure,  which,  because  of  the  many  interests  it  included,  was 
called  the  Omnibus  Bill.     These  were  its  provisions :    (i)  The 
speedy  admission  of  California  as  a  free  state;    (2)  Territorial 
governments  in  New  Mexico  and  Utah  without  any  restrictions 
upon  slavery ;   (3)  The  payment  to  Texas  of  ten  million  dollars 
for  her  claim  to  a  part  of  the  territory  of  New  Mexico ;   (4) 
Slavery  was  not  to  be  abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia 
without  the  consent  of  Maryland,  but  the  slave  trade  therein 

i  The  Wilmot  Proviso,  introduced  in  Congress  during  the  progress  of  the  war, 
sought  to  prohibit,  beforehand,  the  introduction  of  slavery  into  any  of  the  territory 
that  might  be  acquired.  It  did  not  become  a  law. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  321 

was  prohibited;  (5)  A  more  effective  fugitive  slave-law; 
(6)  Denial  to  Congress  of  all  power  to  interfere  with  the  slave 
trade  between  slave-holding  states.1  This  bill  became  law. 

The  debate  upon  this  bill  extended  over  seven  months  and 
was  carried  on  by  men  who  made  national  reputations  in  its 
discussion  and  by  others,  already  famous,  who  remain  our 
country's  greatest  orators.  Webster,  Clay,  and  Calhoun,  the 
great  statesmen  who  had  been  powerful  in  shaping  the  policy 
of  our  government  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  were  in  their  old 
age  again  in  their  places  in  the  Senate ;  and  all  of  them  pre- 
sented eloquent  arguments  and  all  of  them  supported  the  gen- 
eral provisions  of  the  bill.2  Among  others  who  participated  in 
the  debate  were  Jefferson  Davis,  who  took  positive  and  aggres- 
sive Southern  ground,  and  William  H.  Seward,  of  New  York, 
an  impassioned  anti-slavery  orator. 

483.  The  Fugitive-Slave  Agitation. —  The  Fugitive-Slave 
Law,  which  was  a  part  of  the  compromise,  provided  that  run- 
away slaves  might  be  claimed  by  their  owners  in  any  territory  : 
it  directed  federal  officers  to  aid  the  master  in  securing  fugi- 
tives ;  it  allowed  the  master  to  present  proofs  of  ownership  and 
identity,  but  denied  the  slave  the  right  to  testify.3  In  the 
Northern  states  the  arrest  of  fugitive  slaves,  under  this  law, 
was  resisted.  One  slave  in  Syracuse  and  another  in  Boston 

1  "  To  please  the  North,  California  was  to  be  admitted,  and  the  slave  d6pots  here 
in  the  District  were  to  be  broken  up.    To  please  the  slave  states  a  stringent  fugitive- 
slave  act  was  to  be  passed  and  slavery  was  to  have  a  chance  to  get  into  the  new  terri- 
tories.  The  support  of  the  senators  and  representatives  from  Texas  was  to  be  gained 
by  a  liberal  adjustment  of  boundary  and  by  the  assumption  of  a  large  portion  of  their 
state  debt." —  Salmon  P.  Chase,  Senate,  February  3,  1854. 

2  Mr.  Calhoun  was  too  feeble  to  deliver  his  speech  on  this  bill,  but  he  sat  in  the 
Senate  while  it  was  read  by  a  friend.     This  was  Calhoun's  last  appearance  in  the 
Senate.     He  died  March  31,  1850.    Clay  and  Webster  died  two  years  later;  Clay, 
June  28,  1852  ;  Webster,  October  24,  1852. 

3  Webster  had  contended  for  trial  by  jury  in  the  question  of  ownership  and  iden- 
tity.  He  wished  to  provide  against  the  fraudulent  capture  of  negroes  by  adventurers 
But  no  case  of  a  fraudulent  claim  of  this  kind  was  ever  discovered. 


322  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

were  taken  from  officers  by  mob  force  and  secretly  hurried  out 
of  the  country.  Several  Northern  states  passed  Personal  Liber- 
ty Bills  "  nullifying  "  the  fugitive-slave  law.  The  Abolitionists 
established  routes  and  stations  from  the  South  to  Canada  by 
means  of  which  "  underground  railways,"  as  they  were  called, 
slaves  were  aided  to  escape  from  the  United  States.  Webster, 
Choate,  and  many  of  the  Northern  statesmen  defended  the  law 
or  advocated  compliance  with  it. '  Seward  and  the  Abolitionists 
asserted  that  the  obligation  to  conscience  was  higher  than  the 
obligation  to  the  law  of  the  land. 

484.  Railroad  Development. —  In  the  year  1851,  the  Erie 
Railroad,  the  longest  in  the  country  at  the  time  (470  miles), 
was  formally  opened.     The  president,  and  several  members  of 
his  cabinet,  rode  the  full  length  of  the  track  and  joined  in  the 
jubilee  exercises  by  speaking  at  the  larger  towns.     Before  the 
close  of  the  administration,  10,087  miles  of  road  had  been  con- 
structed.    In  March,  1853,  Congress  ordered  an  exploration  at 
public  expense  to  ascertain  the  best  route  for  a  railroad  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

485.  Summary.  —  President  Taylor  died  after  a  little  more  than  a 
year's  service,  and  Vice-President  Fillmore  succeeded  to  the  presidency. 
California  adopted  a  constitution  in  1849  an(^  asked  for  admission  to  the 
Union.     Controversy  arose  as  to  whether  it  should  be  admitted  as  "free  " 
or  "  slave  "  territory.     Henry  Clay  offered  the  Omnibus  Bill  (1850)  as  a 
compromise    measure.      California   was   admitted    as   a  free  state ;    New 
Mexico  and  Utah  were  to  have  territorial  governments  without  restrictions 
as  to  slavery.     A  new  and  severe  fugitive-slave  bill  aroused   great    opposi- 
tion at  the  North.     Secret  routes  and  stations  (nicknamed  "  underground 
railways  ")  were  arranged  to  aid  the  flight  of  runaway  slaves.    Railroads  de- 
veloped rapidly :  the  administration  closed  with  10,000  miles  of  track  and 
an  order  for  a  survey  for  a  route  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

486.  Thought  Questions.  —  What  reference  to  fugitive  slaves  was  con- 
tained  in    the  provisions  of  the   New   England   Confederation  ?      In    the 
Ordinance  of  1787?     In  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States?     What 
was  the  most  important  event  of  this  administration  ? 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


323 


PIERCE'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
One  Term  :    1853-1857. 

487.  Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President.  — 

Franklin  Pierce  (born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1804)  was  the  son 
of  a  distinguished  family  and  had  excellent  early  advantages  of 
education  and  association.  At  twenty-five,  he  entered  the  state 
Legislature ;  at  twenty-nine,  the  House  of  Representatives ;  and 
at  thirty-three,  the  United 
States  Senate.  After  serv- 
ing five  years  in  the  Senate, 
he  resigned  his  seat  and 
resumed  the  practice  of  law 
at  Concord,  New  Hamp- 
shire. He  declined  to  go 
into  President  Polk's  cab- 
inet as  attorney- general. 
He  also  refused  to  be  con- 
sidered for  the  Democratic 
nomination  for  governor  of 
his  state.  When  the  Mexi- 
can War  came  up,  he  en- 
listed as  a  volunteer.  He 

was  quickly  advanced  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general ;  and  in 
General  Scott's  march  to  the  Mexican  capital  he  rendered  signal 
service.  He  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  Demo- 
cratic party  in  1852,  and  was  elected  over  General  Scott,  who 
was  the  Whig  candidate.  He  was  a  man  of  aggressive  temper, 
was  true  to  his  friends  and  to  his  party,  and  was  fearless  and 
persevering  in  the  execution  of  his  policies. 

488.  Slavery :    The  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Bill.  —  Not 

all  of  the  pioneers  who  started  for  the  Pacific  coast  reached  the 
Californian  El  Dorado.  Some  stopped  on  the  way,  fearing  to 


324  HISTORY    OF  -OUR    COUNTRY. 

risk  the  dangerous  journey  across  the  mountains.  The  great 
plain  west  of  the  Missouri  was  settled  by  these  travelers  who 
found  it  impossible  to  reach  the  extreme  west. 

Senator  Douglas  of  Illinois,  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
territories,  had  become  interested  in  this  "  Platte  Country " l 
and  proposed  to  organize  it  into  territories.  His  bill,  intro- 
duced in  January,  i854,2  divided  this  region  into  two  parts,  the 
northern  part  called  Nebraska,  and  the  southern  part  Kansas. 
Both  of  the  proposed  territories  lay  within  the  limits  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase  and  north  of  36°  30'  and  were  therefore, 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  free  terri- 
tory. The  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  however,  proposed  to  set 
aside  this  part  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  to  leave  the 
people  of  the  territory  to  say,  when  they  asked  for  admission 
as  a  state,  whether  they  would  permit  slavery.  The  bill  was 
strongly  opposed  by  those  who  were  fighting  slavery.  It  was 
condemned  as  a  flagrant  violation  of  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
which,  by  its  own  terms,  was  to  last  forever.  Senator  Douglas 
contended  that  the  great  compromise  Omnibus  Bill  of  1850 
virtually  repealed  the  Missouri  Compromise  by  setting  forth 
the  principle  that  Congress  should  not  interfere  with  new  terri- 
tory by  legislating  either  freedom  or  slavery  into  it,  and  by  de- 
claring the  people's  right  to  decide  about  slavery  in  their  own 
domain.3  For  months,  the  bill  was  the  subject  of  debate  in 

1  This  great  plain  was  called  the  "Platte  Country"  from  the  Platte  River,  which 
was  its  chief  physical  feature. 

2  On  January  4,  1854,  Senator  Douglas  introduced  a  bill  for  the  organization  of 
Nebraska  Territory.     This  bill  provided  that  the  people,  by  their  own  constitution, 
should  decide  whether  slavery  should  be  permitted  within  the  limits  of  the  state.    In 
other  words,  the  existence  of  slavery  or  of  freedom  within  Nebraska  was  not  to  be 
considered  by  Congress  when  the  territory  applied  for  admission  as  a  state.     On 
January  23,  Senator  Douglas  offered  the  bill  described  above  as  a  substitute  for  the 
bill  of  January  4.     The  second  bill  expressly  repealed  that  part  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise (Section  8)  which  the  first  bill  was  said  to  violate  indirectly. 

8  The  Omnibus  Bill  provided  that  New  Mexico  and  Utah  should  be  admitted 
without  any  restrictions  as  to  slavery. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  325 

Congress.  It  became  a  national  issue,  and  was  the  subject  of 
bitter  controversy  in  the  newspapers  and  on  the  stump.  It  was 
passed  in  May.  It  created  two  new  territories.  It  expressly 
repealed  that  part  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  which  said  that 
the  territory  north  of  36°  30'  should  be  forever  free.  The 
authority  for  deciding  upon  slavery  was  taken  from  Congress 
and  was  given  to  the  people  of  the  territories.1 

489.  The  Struggle  for  Kansas. —  Between  the  North  and 
the  South,  a  struggle  began  for  supremacy  in  Kansas.  Indeed, 
in  the  North,  preparations  to  colonize  Kansas  with  free  settlers 
began  while  the  bill  was  pending.  In  April,  1854,  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature  granted  a  charter  to  "  The  Massachusetts 
Emigrant  Aid  Society"  which,  with  a  capital  stock  of  five 
million  dollars,  prepared  to  organize  a  far-reaching  system  of 
Kansas  emigration.2  But  this  first  attempt  at  colonization  was 
not  very  successful.  The  next  year,  a  second  charter  was 
granted  by  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  this  time  to  the 
"  New  England  Emigrant  Society,"  which  society  was  duly  or- 
ganized, obtained  contributions  to  the  amount  of  $140,000,  and 
was  more  successful  than  the  first  one  had  been.  In  July, 
1854,  however,  through  the  influence  and  direct  aid  of  the 
original  Massachusetts  Company,  a  body  of  Massachusetts 
emigrants  set  out  on  their  way  to  Kansas.  The  news  of  the 
journey  to  the  West,  heralded  far  and  wide  in  the  press,  proved 
a  wonderful  stimulus  in  inducing  others  to  aid  in  getting  con- 
trol of  the  territory ;  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  year,  Kansas 
had  a  population  of  several  thousand  "  sons  of  freedom."  The 
South  made  no  organized  attempt  at  colonization,  but  it  looked 
on  the  Northern  movement  with  a  jealous  eye.  The  slave- 

1  The  settlers  in  this  Western  country  were  often  called  "  Squatters,"  and  their 
right  to  decide  upon  slavery  was  often  spoken  of  as  "  Squatter  Sovereignty." 

2  This  charter  was  the  result  of  the  work  of  Eli  Thayer,  who  was  a  pioneer 
in  Kansas  colonization  from  the  North.      He  was  heartily  encouraged  and  sup- 
ported by  such  men  as  Charles  Francis  Adams,  Edward  Everett  Hale,  and  Horace 
Greeley. 


326  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

holders  along  the  borders  of  Missouri  prepared  their  own  plan 
for  saving  Kansas  to  the  South :  they  proposed  to  move  over 
into  Kansas  at  the  proper  time  and  meet  the  New  England 
Free-Soilers  at  the  polls.  The  New  England  societies  had 
armed  their  colonists,  and  the  Missouri  "  Borderers  "  had  guns 
and  knew  how  to  use  them.  Under  such  conditions,  contests, 
riots,  and  bloodshed  were  inevitable.  In  the  election  of  a  ter- 
ritorial delegate  to  Congress,  the  slave-holders  were  successful. 
The  first  territorial  Legislature  was  in  favor  of  slavery.  But  the 
free-state  settlers  claimed  that  this  first  Legislature  was  elected 
by  fraudulent  votes  of  "  Border  Ruffians  "  from  Missouri.  So 
the  free-state  colonists  elected  a  Legislature  of  their  own  and 
prepared  to  form  a  code  of  laws.  The  president  recognized 
the  slavery  Legislature  as  the  legal  one  and  sent  federal  troops 
to  suppress  any  violence  or  rebellion.  There  was  so  much 
fighting  between  the  factions  that  the  territory  came  to  be 
known  as  "  Bleeding  Kansas." 

490.  The  Republican  Party.  —  People  who  were  opposed 
to  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  or  to  slavery,  joined  together  in 
the  next  election  to  elect  congressmen  who  were  opposed  to 
slavery  and  to  the  principles  of  this  act.  These  voters  were  at 
first  spoken  of  as  the  "  Anti-Nebraska  Men."  They  elected  a 
majority  of  the  next  House  of  Representatives.  They  after- 
wards took  the  name  of  the  Republican  party.1  At  the  time, 
the  organization  was  strictly  a  Northern  and  an  anti-slavery 
party.  Its  members  came  from  Northern  Democrats,  Northern 
Whigs,  Free-Soilers,  and  the  American  party.2  This  was  the 
origin  of  the  Republican  party  of  to-day. 

1  The  Democrats  called  the    Republicans  "  Black   Republicans "   because  they 
sought  to  free  the  negro. 

2  A  secret  political  organization  was  formed  about  1852.    Because  outsiders  could 
learn  nothing  of  its  purposes,  it  was  called  the  Know-Nothing  party.     It  took  the 
name  of  the  American  party  and  its  object  became  known.    Its  design  was  to  hinder 
or  prevent  the  naturalization  of  foreigners  (see  Constitution)  and  to  vote  only  for 
American  candidates  for  office. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  327 

491.  The  World's  Fair.  —  In  July,   1853,   America's  first 
World's  Fair  was  opened  at  New  York  City.     President  Pierce 
attended  the  exercises  and  spoke  to  a  vast  audience.     The  Old 
World,  however,  did  not  extend  the  patronage  that  the  New 
World   had   expected,  and   financially  the  fair  was   a  failure. 
But  it  demonstrated  that  Americans  were  the  greatest  of  all 
inventors,  and  that  in  labor-saving  machinery,  and  notably  agri- 
cultural implements,  America  led  the  world. 

492.  The  Treaty  with  Japan;   Gadsden  Purchase.  —  In 

the  same  year  (1853),  Commodore  Perry,  with  a  fleet  of  steam- 
ships was  allowed  to  enter  one  of  the  ports  of  Japan.  The 
Japanese  had  never  seen  a  steamship,  and  they  were  very 
suspicious  of  Americans ;  but,  on  acquaintance,  they  liked  our 
ships  and  our  representatives  so  well  that  they  made  a  treaty 
with  the  United  States  opening  the  way  to  commerce  between 
the  nations.  Since  that  time,  the  Japanese  have  advanced 
rapidly  in  civilization,  and  have  borne  the  most  cordial  relations 
with  our  country.  /- 

There  was  much  controversy  over  the  southern  boundary  of 
our  new  acquisitions  in  the  Southwest.  In  1853  we  paid 
Mexico  $10,000,000  for  45,000  square  miles  lying  south  of  the 
Gila  River,  fixing  the  exact  boundary  of  the  tract  by  treaty. 
This  tract  is  called  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  from  General 
Gadsden  of  South  Carolina,  who  negotiated  the  purchase. 

493.  Summary.  —  The  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  organizing  the  territories 
of  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  was  passed  (May,  1854).     By  its  provisions,  the 
people  of  the  territory  were  to  decide  on  slavery.     A  fierce  struggle  began 
between  the  anti-slavery  and  the  slavery  people  for  the  possession  of  Kan- 
sas.    The  preliminary  victories  were  for  those  who  favored  slavery.     The 
Republican  party,  a  party  opposed  to  slavery,  grew  out  of  the  opposition  to 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill.     Our  first  World's  Fair  was  held  in  New  York 
in  1853.     A  treaty  with  Japan,  made  in  1853,  established  a  friendly  relation 
with  this  country.     The  Gadsden  Purchase  was  effected. 

494.  Thought  Questions.  —  Name  the  states  whose  admission  aroused 
the  slavery  controversy.     What  two  bills  were  violations  of  the  "  Missouri 
Compromise  "  ?  •  What  was  the  most  important  event  of  Pierce's  adminis- 
tration ?     Why  do  you  so  consider  it  ? 


328  HISTORY  OF  OUR  COUNTRY. 

BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
One  Term:   1857-1861. 

495.  Services  and  Character  of  the  New  President.— 
James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  1791.    He  edu- 
cated himself  for  the  law.     Prior  to  his  entrance  into  national 
politics  he  served 

his  state  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania House  of 
Representatives. 
From  1820101831, 
he  was  a  represen- 
tative in  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United 
States.  He  was 
then  sent  as  minis- 
ter to  Russia.  For 
eleven  years  (1834 
to  1845)  he  was  a 
United  States  sen- 
ator. During  Folk's 

.     .  .  James  Buchanan. 

administration    he 

was  secretary  of  state.  At  the  time  he  was  nominated  for  the 
presidency  he  was  minister  to  England.  Throughout  his  entire 
political  career  he  was  a  Democrat.  He  was  a  man  of  high 
character,  cautious  temperament,  and  patriotic  feeling. 

496.  Dred  Scott  Decision.  —  A  few  days  after  Buchanan's 
inauguration  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  its  decision  in  the 
Dred  Scott  case.     Dred  Scott  was  a  slave  owned  by  Dr.  Emer- 
son of  Missouri.     While  in  discharge  of  his  duties  as  surgeon 
in  the  United  States  Army,  Dr.  Emerson  resided  for  several 
years   in  the  free   State   of   Illinois,   and  in  that  part  of  the 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  329 

Louisiana  territory  now  embraced  in  the  State  of  Minnesota. 
The  master  carried  his  slave  with  him,  and  after  his  return  to 
Missouri  sold  Scott  to  a  Mr.  Sanford,  a  citizen  of  New  York. 
Suit  was  instituted  against  Sanford  in  the  name  of  Scott. 
Upon  the  ground  that  residence  in  a  free  state  and  territory 
had  secured  his  liberty,  the  slave  was  declared  free  by  the 
State  Circuit  Court  of  Missouri.  On  appeal  by  Sanford,  this 
decision  was  reversed  by  the  State  Supreme  Court.  Scott, 
claiming  to  be  a  citizen  of  Missouri,  then  instituted  suit  in  the 
Federal  Circuit  Court.  If  Scott  was  a  citizen  of  Missouri,  then 
the  suit  was  between  citizens  of  the  different  states,  and  could 
therefore  be  tried  in  the  United  States  courts  (§  343).  Sanford 
urged  that  Scott  was  not  a  citizen,  but  a  slave,  and,  therefore, 
could  not  bring  suit.  This  plea  was  overruled,  and  a  jury 
awarded  Scott  as  a  slave  to  Sanford.  The  case  was  then  appealed 
by  Scott  and  went  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
for  decision.  After  three  years,  in  1857,  the  decision  was  an- 
nounced. The  court,  consisting  of  nine  justices,  declared  that 
no  African,  whether  slave  or  free,  could  be  a  citizen  of  a  state 
or  of  the  United  States  ;  that  Scott,  upon  his  return  to  Mis- 
souri, had  again  become  a  slave. 

497.  Results  of  the  Decision.  —  The  Court  has  been 
severely  censured  for  not  stopping  there.  But  thinking  that 
the  case  involved  the  constitutionality  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise, the  Court  considered  that  also.  This  compromise 
was  declared  unconstitutional,  on  the  ground  that  the  Louisi- 
ana territory  was  common  property,  and  Congress  had  no 
right  to  discriminate  against  any  state.  (Const.,  Art.  IV, 
Sec.  2,  clause  i.)  In  this  decision  seven  of  the  nine  justices 
concurred.  Thirty-seven  years  after  the  passage  of  the 
Compromise  Bill,  the  Court  had  at  last  an  opportunity  to  ex- 
press its  opinion  as  to  the  constitutionality  of  the  measure. 
The  decision  was  rendered  in  the  hope  that  the  political  excite- 


33O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

ment  might  be  allayed  by  this  settlement  of  the  question. 
But  instead  of  averting  the  threatened  danger,  it  added  fuel  to 
the  flames.  The  anti-slavery  element  saw  that  every  depart- 
ment of  the  government  was  against  their  views.  The  name 
of  Chief  Justice  Taney  was  execrated  at  the  North ;  and 
although  he  had  held  the  position  of  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  he  was  accused 
of  playing  into  the  hands  of  the  Southern  leaders. 

498.  Mormon  Insurrection.  —  During  the  first  year  of  this 
administration,  trouble  arose  with  the  Mormons  in  Utah.    They 
objected  to  the  establishment  of  Federal  courts  in  their  territo- 
ry, and  prepared  to  resist  the  United  States  authorities.     An 
army  was  sent  against  them,  and  upon  a  general  proclamation 
of  pardon,  quiet  was  restored. 

499.  Panic  of  1857.  —  For  a  number  of  years  the  country 
had   been  in  a  prosperous  condition.     The  great   gold   dis- 
coveries  had  given  unusual  stimulus  to  trade.     Speculation 
was  rife.     A  reaction,  caused  by  too  great  stimulus,  came  in 
1857,  and  a  financial  panic  occurred.     Congress,  to  relieve  the 
stringency,  passed  the  tariff  law  of  1857,  reducing  tariff  duties 
to  the  revenue  level.    This  period  has  been  called  "  the  free- 
trade  era." 

500.  The  Lincoln-Douglas  Debate.  —  Senator  Douglas,  of 
Illinois,  by  favoring  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
had  made  himself  very  popular  at  the  South,  though  he  was 
severely  criticised  at  the  North.     He  parted   company,  how- 
ever, with  the  South  in  the  Kansas  controversy.     The  South- 
ern party  in   Kansas   adopted   a  constitution   which   allowed 
slavery,  and  applied  for  admission  to  the  Union.    The  conven- 
tion was  held  at  Lecompton,  and  the  constitution  adopted  was 
therefore  called  the  "  Lecompton  Constitution."     The  opposi- 
tion charged  unfairness  and  refrained  from  voting  when  the 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  331 

constitution  was  submitted  for  adoption  by  the  people  of  the 
territory.  Congress  passed  a  bill  admitting  Kansas,  but  resub- 
mitting  the  constitution  to  a  vote  of  the  people.  The  constitu- 
tion was  defeated  this  time,  and  Kansas  remained  a  territory. 
Douglas  opposed  the  enforcement  of  the  Lecompton  constitu- 
tion, and  thus  regained  his  hold  in  the  North.  He  wished  also 
to  regain  the  leadership  which  he  had  lost  in  the  South,  for  he 
wanted  to  be  elected  president.  Accordingly,  his  canvass  for 
the  senatorship  from  Illinois,  in  1858,  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  whole  country.  His  opponent  was  Abraham  Lincoln, 
who  was  soon  to  be  the  foremost  figure  in  the  United  States. 
The  two  candidates  took  the  stump  in  their  own  interest,  and 
a  series  of  most  important  debates  occurred.  Douglas  was  an 
experienced  debater  and  had  no  rival  in  his  ability  to  present 
his  side  of  the  slavery  question.  His  opponent,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  had  a  strong,  logical  mind,  and  his  evident  sincerity 
was  sure  to  create  a  deep  impression  upon  his  hearers. 

The  issue  of  these  debates  would  affect  not  only  the  election 
to  the  United  States  Senate,  but  the  decision  as  to  who  should 
be  elected  as  the  next  president.  Lincoln,  in  spite  of  the  protest 
of  his  friends,  said  in  his  opening  speech,  "  A  house  divided 
against  itself  cannot  stand.  I  believe  this  government  cannot 
endure  half  slave  and  half  free.  I  do  not  expect  the  house  to 
fall,  but  I  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided.  It  will  become  all 
one  thing  or  all  the  other."  Whatever  Lincoln  may  have  meant 
by  these  words,  it  gave  Douglas  an  opportunity  to  represent 
his  opponent  as  a  Disunionist. 

In  the  Dred  Scott  case  Douglas's  doctrine  of  "  Squatter 
Sovereignty"  (p.  325,  footnote),  which  declared  that  the  people 
of  the  territories  might  decide  the  question  of  slavery  as  they 
should  see  fit,  had  been  repudiated  by  the  Supreme  Court. 
Lincoln  asked  if  the  people  of  a  territory  might  legally  keep  out 
slavery.  If  Douglas  answered  "  No,"  then  not  only  Illinois  but 
the  entire  North  would  be  incensed;  if  he  said  "Yes"  then  the 


332 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


support  of  the  South  would  be  totally  lost.  In  this  dilemma 
Douglas  replied  that  as  a  matter  of  fact  if  the  people  of  a  terri- 
tory were  hostile  to  slavery,  slavery  would  not  exist  there. 
This  answer  satisfied  the  people  of  Illinois,  and  he  was  elected 
to  the  Senate,  but  it  offended  the  South  and  ruined  his  chances 
for  the  presidency. 

501.  New  States.  —  During  this  administration  three  new 
states  were  admitted  into  the  Union :  Minnesota  in  1858  ; 
Oregon  in  1859  ;  and  Kansas  in  1861.  All  of  these  states 
came  in  as  free  states.  Kansas,  which  had  been  refused  ad- 
mission as  a  free  state  by  the  Senate,  was 
admitted  in  1861  after  some  of  the  Southern 
senators  had  withdrawn  from  the  Senate. 

502.    Mineral   Discoveries.  —  In    1858, 
just  ten  years  after  the  discoveries  in  Cali- 
fornia, gold  mines  were  found  at  Pike's  Peak, 
Colorado.     Already  it  had  been  found  that 
large  areas  of  the  United  States  contained 
coal-bearing  strata,  and  that  the  cost  of  fuel 
would  offer  no  impediment  to  the  develop- 
ment of  our  country.     In  the  same  year  that 
gold  was  discovered  in  Colorado,  the  Corn- 
stock    Silver    Mines    were    discovered    at 
Virginia  City,  Nevada.     Up  to  this  time  it 
1  was  not  known  that  there  were  any 
silver  deposits  in  the  United  States. 
Since  then  the  West  has  produced 
most  of  the  world's  silver. 

In  1859,  rich  underground  oil 
streams  were  found  in  Pennsylvania. 
Wells  were  sunk  and  the  oil  brought 

to  the  surface.  These  wells  were  richer  in  usefulness  to  man 
than  even  the  great  mines  of  Colorado. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


333 


503,  Scientific  Progress — The  first  maps  of  the  winds  and 
currents  of  the  sea  were  made  by  Matthew  F.  Maury,  Superin- 
tendent   of    the    United 

States,  Naval  Observatory 
(see  biographical  sketch, 
Appendix  B).  They 
proved  of  world-wide 
benefit  as  a  means  of 
saving  every  year  millions 
of  dollars  and  thousands 
of  lives.  Maury's  obser- 
vations of  the  winds  and 
his  suggestions  based 
upon  them  were  the  be- 
ginning of  our  present 
elaborate  system  of 
weather  reports.  By  the 
aid  of  a  deep  sea  sounding 
apparatus  devised  by  his  associate,  John  M.  Brooke,  of  Virginia, 
Maury  discovered  the  existence  of  a  plateau  in  the  bed  of  the 
northern  Atlantic,  upon  which  the  first  Atlantic  cable  was  after- 
ward laid  (§  614). 

504.  John   Brown's   Raid.  —  Prodigious    excitement    had 
been    produced    at   the    North   by   the    Dred   Scott  decision. 
Equally  intense  was  the  excitement  produced  in  the  South  by 
the  John  Brown   Raid.     John  Brown  was  a  half-crazy  fanatic, 
who  conceived  the  notion  that  it  was  his  special  mission  to 
overthrow  slavery.    Recognizing  no  law  but  his  own  conception 
of  right,  he  had  figured  as  a  bloody  fanatic  in  the  Kansas 
struggle.     His  large  family  of  sons  were  very  like  their  father. 
This  family  and  a  few  friends,  under  Brown,  conceived  a  plan 
of  liberating  and  arming  the  slaves.    With  the  view  of  securing 
the  necessary  arms,  they  seized  the  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry, 


Matthew  F.  Maury. 


334  HISTORY    OF     OUR    COUNTRY. 

Va.,  in  October,  1859.  The  band  numbered  less  than  two 
dozen.  Before  they  could  escape  they  were  easily  captured  by 
Col.  Robert  E.  Lee  with  a  few  United  States  troops.  In  resist- 
ing capture  most  of  the  band  were  killed.  The  survivors  were 
tried  and  executed  by  the  Virginia  authorities. 

Intense  sympathy  for  Brown  was  manifested  in  many  parts 
of  the  North.  He  was  eulogized  as  a  martyr.  Abolitionists  of 
the  Wendell  Phillips  and  William  Lloyd  Garrison  type  approved 
his  terrible  scheme;  the  expressions  of  such  men  caused  the 
gravest  apprehension  in  the  South.  Brown's  plot  seemed  to 
foreshadow  larger  plots  for  servile  insurrection  with  all  its 
attendant  horrors,  and  it  led  the  South  to  believe  that  an 
Abolitionist  president,  if  elected,  would  aid  such  plots. 

PRESIDENTIAL    CAMPAIGN  OF  iSbo. 

505.  The  Democratic  Convention  met  in  Charleston,  S.C., 
April  23,  1860,  to  nominate  candidates  for  the  presidency  and 
vice-presidency.      The   Southern    members    insisted   that  the 
Dred  Scott  decision  (§  496)  be  endorsed  in  the  platform,  and 
they  opposed  the  nomination  of  Douglas. 

The  Northern  members  refused  to  endorse  the  platform  sub- 
mitted. To  do  so  would,  they  feared,  cause  defeat  in  their  own 
states.  The  Southern  members  refused  to  accept  less  than  the 
endorsement  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision. 

506.  First  Split  in  Democratic  Party.  —  The  convention 
split  in  two.     Many  of  the  Southern  delegates  withdrew  and 
decided  to  meet  later  in  Richmond.     The  rest  of  the  conven- 
tion, though  largely  Douglas  men,  could  not  agree  on  a  candi- 
date.    On  May  3  the  convention  adjourned  to  give  time  for  the 
vacancies  caused  by  the  seceding  members  to  be  filled.     They 
adjourned  to  meet  in  Baltimore. 

507.  Constitutional  Party.  —  While  the  Democratic  Con- 
vention had  been  in  session  at  Charleston,  the  Constitutional 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  335 

Union  party  had  met.  This  was  composed  mainly  of  the  old 
Know-Nothing  sympathizers.  They  were  joined  also  by  a  large 
number  who  were  weary  of  the  agitation  of  the  slavery  question. 
They  nominated  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  for  the  presidency, 
and  Edward  Everett,  of  Massachusetts,  for  the  vice-presidency. 

508.  Republicans.  —  On  May  16  the  Republican  Conven- 
tion assembled  at  Chicago.     The  general  expectation  was  that 
W.  H.  Seward  would  be  nominated,  and  on  the  first  ballot  he 
received  the  largest  number  of  votes.     There  was  strong  oppo- 
sition to  him,  however,  and  it  was  thought  best  to  conciliate  it. 
On  the  third  ballot  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois,  was  nominated 
for  the  presidency.     Hannibal  Hamlin,  of  Maine,  was  placed 
on  the  ticket  for  the  vice-presidency. 

509.  Second  Split  in  Democratic  Party.  —  The  larger  ele- 
ment of  the  Democratic  party  containing  the  Northern  dele- 
gates convened  at  Baltimore  on  June  18.     The  contested  seats 
were  decided  in  favor  of  the  Douglas  men.     This   caused  a 
second  split ;  and  the  chairman  of  the  convention,  most  of  the 
Southern  members,  and  a  few  Northerners  withdrew.     Those 
remaining    nominated    Douglas    of    Illinois   by   adopting   the 
majority  vote. 

The  second  set  of  seceders  adopted  the  platform  which 
caused  the  division  in  Charleston.  Their  nominees  were  John 
C.  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky,  and  Joseph  Lane,  of  Oregon. 
Their  action  was  endorsed  by  the  first  set  of  seceders  when 
they  met  in  Richmond. 

Thus  we  find  four  strong  parties  with  candidates  for  the 
presidency. 

510.  Position  of  the  Parties  on  Slavery.  — The   Repub- 
lican party,  under  the  leadership  of  Lincoln,    declared   that 
slavery  was  a  local  institution,  and  owed  its  existence  to  state 
laws ;  that  it  had  no  rights  in  the  territories,  and  that  Congress 
should  prohibit  its  extension. 


336  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

The  Southern  wing  of  the  Democratic  party,  with  Breckin- 
ridge  as  their  champion,  affirmed  that  Congress  should  protect 
all  property  in  the  territories,  and  therefore  the  property  in 
slaves.  They  based  their  demands  on  the  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court 

The  Northern  Democrats  declared  their  willingness  to  abide 
by  the  Supreme  Court  decision,  yet  adhered  to  the  "  Squatter 
Sovereignty  "  doctrine.  With  their  leader,  Douglas,  they  held 
that  it  was  possible  to  exclude  slavery  from  any  territory  if  the 
people  of  the  territory  voted  to  do  so. 

The  Constitutional  Union  party  desired  to  avoid  the  slavery 
issue.  They  merely  declared  their  loyalty  to  the  Constitution 
and  devotion  to  the  Union. 

511.  The  Election.  —  The  Republicans  went  into  the  cam- 
paign with  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  In  convention  they  de- 
nounced the  John  Brown  Raid,  but  the  Abolitionists  constituted 
a  large  and  aggressive  element  of  the  party. 

As  the  number  of  Abolitionists  increased,  their  crusade 
against  slavery  grew  in  intensity.  They  now  hoped,  through 
the  election  of  Lincoln,  to  strike  a  fatal  blow  at  slavery,  even 
by  subverting  the  Constitution,  if  necessary  (§  439  et  seq^). 
It  is  not  strange  that  the  masses  of  the  Southern  people  began 
to  conclude  that  Lincoln's  election  would  make  it  necessary  for 
the  Southern  states  to  secede  if  the  inherent  rights  of  the  states 
were  to  be  preserved.  The  Republicans  won  the  election  chiefly 
because  their  opponents  were  divided.  Lincoln  carried  the 
Northern  states,  Breckinridge  the  South,  Bell  the  border  states 
of  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  and  Douglas  carried 
Missouri.  The  vote  of  New  Jersey  was  divided  between  Lincoln 
and  Douglas.  Douglas's  strength  lay  in  the  same  states  as  Lin- 
coln's, but  Lincoln  carried  all  of  these  states  except  New  Jersey, 
and  received  the  majority  of  the  votes  of  that  state.  The  popu- 
lar vote  gave  Lincoln  1,866,541 ;  Douglas,  1,375,157;  Breckin- 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


337 


ridge,  847,953;  Bell,  590,631.  Thus  we  see  that  the  opposition 
to  Lincoln  was  very  strong,  and  that  he  received  far  less  than 
a  majority  of  the  popular  vote.  By  electoral  votes  the  result 
stood  :  Lincoln,  180  ;  Breckinridge,  72  ;  Bell,  39  ;  Douglas,  12. 

512.  Effect  of  the  Election.  —  When  it  became  known  that 
Lincoln  was  elected,  the  excitement  in  the  South  grew  intense. 
Secession,  which  heretofore  had  been  viewed  as  a  mere  possi- 


Area  of  Slave  and   Free  States. 

bility,  now  seemed  to  the  South  a  necessity.  Yet  love  for  the 
Union  which  their  fathers  had  established  inclined  conserva- 
tive people  North  and  South  still  to  hope  that  some  way  would 
be  found  to  avert  the  impending  separation  ;  but  affairs  were 
rapidly  approaching  a  crisis  wherein  the  North  and  South 
would  soon  be  arrayed  in  deadly  opposition  to  each  other. 

513.  Buchanan's  Message.  —  President  Buchanan,  in  his 
message  to  Congress,  which  met  on  December  3,  1860,  justified 
in  a  large  measure  the  attitude  of  the  South.  He  declared  the 


338  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Constitution  and  Federal  laws  had  been  nullified  by  the  "  Per- 
sonal Liberty  Laws  "  (§  483)  passed  by  the  Northern  states, 
denounced  the  so-called  "  underground  railway  "  (§  483),  and 
condemned  the  anti-slavery  agitation  so  prevalent  at  the  North. 
While  he  did  not  admit  that  secession  was  a  right,  he  declared 
that  the  general  government  had  no  power  to  coerce  a  state. 

514.  Efforts  at  Compromise. — -  Efforts  were  made  in  both 
Houses  of  Congress  to  avert  the  impending  peril  by  compro- 
mise, but  they  came  to  naught.  Senator  Crittenden,  of  Ken- 
tucky, proposed  that  the  Constitution  be  so  amended  as  to 
establish  the  36°  30'  line  (§  417)  between  the  free  and  slave 
territory,  and  that  payment  be  made  out  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States  for  such  fugitive  slaves  as  could  not  be 
recovered.  Action  on  his  resolution  was  postponed  until 
seven  states  had  seceded,  and  then  it  was  defeated.  A  com- 
mittee of  thirteen  senators,  chosen  from  Southern  Democrats, 
Northern  Democrats,  and  Republicans,  was  appointed  to  find  a 
basis  of  compromise,  but  they  were  unable  to  agree  because 
the  Republican  members,  flushed  with  their  recent  victory,1 
were  unwilling  to  make  any  concessions.  A  similar  effort  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  proved  equally  futile. 

Virginia  invited  all  the  states  to  send  delegates  to  a  Peace 
Congress,  which  was  to  meet  in  Washington  on  February  4. 
Twenty-one  states  responded,  and  ex-President  John  Tyler 
presided  over  the  conference,  but  the  movement  was  fruitless. 
Sectional  feeling  had  grown  too  strong  to  be  arrested  by 
compromise. 

l  In  reply  to  a  boastful  remark  of  Senator  Seward  to  the  effect  that  "the  North 
Was  now  to  take  charge  of  the  Government,"  Senator  Hammond,  of  South  Carolina, 
said :  "  Do  not  forget,  it  cannot  be  forgotten,  that  we,  the  slaveholders  of  the  South, 
took  our  country  in  her  infancy  and,  after  ruling  her  sixty  out  of  seventy  years  of  her 
existence,  surrender  her  to  you  without  a  stain  upon  her  honor,  boundless  in  wealth, 
incalculable  in  strength,  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  world !  Time  will  tell 
what  you  will  do  for  her ;  but  time  will  never  diminish  our  glory  or  your  responsi- 
bility." 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  339 

515.  Secession.  —  The    electors    in    South    Carolina   were 
chosen  by  the  Legislature.     After  choosing  them  the  Legis- 
lature remained  in  session  to  await  the  result  of  their  action. 
When  the  news  of  Lincoln's  election  was  received  the  Legis- 
lature called  a  convention  to  be  elected  by  the  people.     This 
convention  was  to  take  such  action  as  the  emergency  demanded. 
It  met  December  17,  and  on  the  2oth,  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
passed  the  Secession  Ordinance.,  recalling  the  consent  given  to 
the    Federal    Constitution    in    1788    and   to    the   amendments 
adopted  afterward. 

516.  First   Area   of   Secession.  —  In  January,  1861,  Mis- 
sissippi,  Alabama,   Florida,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana  seceded, 
and  in  February  Texas    also  left    the    Union.       In  all  these 
states   conventions  of   the  people    passed    the    secession    or- 
dinances.      In  Texas  the  action  of  the  convention  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  people  and  ratified  by  popular  vote. 

As  the  states  seceded,  their  senators  and  representatives 
withdrew  from  the  Federal  Congress,1  and  Southern  officers 
generally  withdrew  from  the  Federal  army  and  navy.2 

517.  Federal  Property.  —  As  the  states  seceded  they  took 
possession  of   all  forts,  arsenals,  and  other    Federal  property 
within  their  limits,  so  far  as  they  could  do  so  without  bloodshed. 
Soon  the  only  forts  within  the  seceded  states  remaining  in  the 
possession  of  the  Federals  were  those  at  Charleston,  Pensacola, 
Key  West,  and  the  Dry  Tortugas.     The  sites  on  which  the 
Federal  buildings  stood  had  been  ceded  by  the  states  to  the 

1  Their  grounds  for  action  were  shown  in  the  admirable  address  of  Jefferson  Davis 
on  leaving  the  Senate.  —  (Davis's  "  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederacy,"  Vol.  I,  pp. 
221-225.) 

2  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  who  resigned  after  Virginia  seceded,  expressed  in  noble 
and  patriotic  language  the  sentiments  of  these  officers.     He  showed  that  he  loved 
the  Union,  which  he  had  served  for  twenty-five  years,  but  his  loyalty  to  his  state  was 
supreme.    "  Save  in  defense  of   my  native   state,"  he  wrote  to  General  Scott,  "  I 
never  desire  again  to  draw  my  sword." 


34°  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

general  government  for  the  protection  of  the  states  ;  after  the 
states  seceded  these  sites  could  not  be  used  for  the  purpose 
for  which  they  were  ceded,  and  hence,  as  the  South  held,  they 
reverted  to  the  states.  The  right  of  all  the  states  in  buildings 
and  other  Federal  property,  except  the  sites,  was  recognized  at 
the  South,  and  commissioners  were  sent  in  December  by  South 
Carolina  to  arrange  for  a  friendly  adjustment  of  the  questions 
relating  to  this  Federal  property  within  their  limits,  as  well 
as  the  national  debt  (§  527). 

518.  The  Right  of  Secession.  —  An  exhaustive  discussion 
of  the  right  of  secession  does  not  belong  to  the  province  of  a 
school  history.1  Secession  and  the  attendant  questions  have 
been  subjects  of  sharp  controversy,  in  which  widely  different 
views  have  been  held,  but  in  regard  to  the  whole  question,  the 
South  steadfastly  maintained  (i)  that  secession  was  a  historic 
and  legal  right  of  the  states ;  (2)  that  the  Southern  states  had 
sufficient  reason  for  withdrawing  from  the  Union. 

(i)  Secession  a  Historic  Right,  —  The  right  of  a  state  to 
secede  was  not  questioned  during  the  time  while  the  Constitu- 
tion was  being  formed  and  while  the  states  were  entering  into 
the  Union.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  Union  could  not  have 
been  formed  had  the  right  to  secede  been  denied.  Virginia, 
New  York,  and  Rhode  Island  (§  339),  in  adopting  the  Consti- 
tution, expressly  affirmed  the  right  of  the  people  of  the  states 
to  resume  the  powers  delegated  to  the  Union  if  they  should 
find  cause  to  do  so  afterwards.  Innumerable  instances  of  the 
assertion  of  this  right  by  statesmen,  jurists,  political  writers, 
state  legislatures,  and  conventions  may  be  cited.  In  the  early 
years  of  our  country's  history  the  secession  sentiment  was 
strongest  in  New  England.  It  was  shown  when  negotiations 

1  Convenient  and  accessible  works  treating  this  subject  more  fully  are  Davis's 
"  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederacy,"  Stephens's  "  War  between  the  States,"  Curry's 
"  The  South,"  Rhodes's  "  History  of  the  United  States."  The  complete  bibliography 
of  the  subject  is  very  extensive. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  34! 

for  closing  the  Mississippi  failed  (§  333),1  when  Jefferson  was 
a  candidate  for  the  presidency,  and  negotiations  were  pending 
for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.2  During  the  War  of  1812  the 
New  England  states  were  making  threats  of  secession,  when 
the  Treaty  of  Ghent  put  an  end  to  the  scheme  (§  407).  The 
Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1844  resolved  that,  "The  project 
of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  unless  arrested  on  the  threshold, 
may  tend  to  drive  these  states  into  a  dissolution  of  the  Union."3 
There  was  little  difference  between  the  North  and  the  South 
on  this  point :  the  majority  of  the  Northern  states  had  threat- 
ened, the  majority  of  the  Southern  states  acted ;  both  had 
affirmed  the  right. 

(2)  Secession  a  Legal  Right.  —  A  brief  statement  of  the 
legal  ground  of  the  right  of  secession  is  as  follows :  The  states 
were  "  free,  sovereign,  and  independent,"  and  were  so  recog- 
nized by  each  other  (§  326)  and  by  England  in  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  (§  323)  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  The 
Constitution  was  formed  as  a  compact  or  agreement  between 
these  "  free,  sovereign,  and  independent "  states.  The  general 
government  of  the  United  States  provided  in  the  Constitution 
was  created  to  promote  the  general  welfare  of  the  states.  Its 
powers  were  given  to  it  by  the  states  and  were  specified  by  the 
Constitution  ;  all  other  powers  were  reserved  to  the  states. 
In  case  of  violation  of  the  Constitution  by  any  member  of  the 
Union,  the  other  members  were  released  from  obligation  to 
maintain  the  Union.  Secession,  or  withdrawal  from  the  com- 
pact, was  a  final  and  peaceable  mode  of  redress.  Such  were 
the  teachings  of  many  of  the  fathers  and  founders  of  the 
United  States.  The  people  of  the  Southern  states  held  stead- 
fastly to  these  teachings  and  believed  sincerely  and  implicitly 
that  the  states  had  the  legal  right  to  withdraw  from  the  Union. 

1  Fiske's  "  Critical  Period,"  p.  221. 

2  "  Welling  on  Conn.  Fed.,"  pp.  9-11. 

3  Davis's  "  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederacy,"  Vol.  I,  p.  96. 


342  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

519.  Reasons  for  Secession.  —  It  is  an  error  to  suppose 
that  the  Southern  states  rushed  hastily  and  blindly  into  seces- 
sion. The  grave  questions  involved  in  a  course  so  decisive  as 
that  of  seceding  from  the  Union  were  discussed  with  intense 
earnestness  throughout  the  South.  The  states,  at  last  con- 
cluding that  their  constitutional  rights  could  not  be  saved  in 
the  Union,  deliberately  withdrew.  Their  reasons  for  this  course 
may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  — 

(1)  Fourteen  Northern  states,  by  passing  "  Personal  Liberty 
Laws"    (§§    483,    513),    had    nullified   the   Constitution    (see 
Art.  4,  §  2,  of  Constitution,  in  Appendix),  and  they  had  also 
violated  Federal  laws  passed  in  pursuance  of  the  Constitution. 
These  violations  of   the  Constitution  by  the  Northern  states 
not  only  absolved  the  Southern  states  from  further  obligation 
to  the  constitutional  compact,  but  they  also  showed  that  the 
Constitution  could  not  be  enforced  and  the  government  main- 
tained with  these  states. 

(2)  The  North  had  abandoned  the  historic  and  legal  view 
(§518)    of   a   Union   under   the   terms   of   the    Constitution. 
It  had  come  to  hold  that  the  Constitution  was  not  a  compact 
between  the  states,  but  the  supreme  law  over  the  states,  and 
that  not  only  was  the  Union  not  created  by  the  states,  but 
that  the  states  had  been  created  by  the  Union.     These  ideas 
were  held  by  the  Republican  party,  which  was  just  coming 
into   power.      This   party  was  pledged  to    disregard    certain 
decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  to  attack  slavery.1 

(3)  Sectional  feeling  between  the  North  and  South  existed 
to  some  extent  in  Colonial  days,  being  apparent  even  in  the 
convention  that  formed  the  Constitution.2   This  feeling  became 
stronger  as  the  conflict  of  interests  between  the  agricultural  and 

1  The  Republican  party  denounced  the  Dred  Scott  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
See  platform  Republican  party  passed  at  Chicago,  1860. 

2  Madison  said :  "  It  seems  now  to  be  pretty  well  understopd  that  the  real  dif- 
ference of  interest  lay,  not  between  the  large  and  small,  but  between  the  Northern 
and  Southern  states."  —  (2  Madison,  1104.) 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  343 

manufacturing  communities  began  to  find  expression  in  tariff 
legislation  (§  436)  ;  but  it  was  the  growth  of  abolitionism  that 
transformed  sectional  feeling  into  sectional  fury.  Although 
the  Republican  party  denounced  the  John  Brown  Raid,  still  the 
Abolitionists  at  the  North  glorified  John  Brown,  fanatic  as  he 
was,  whose  mad  plot  sent  a  thrill  of  horror  into  every  Southern 
home.  Slavery  and  slaveholders  were  denounced,  in  public 
and  in  private,  by  the  press,  from  pulpit  and  rostrum,  in  story, 
essay,  and  poem.1  This  persistent  and  powerful  crusade  inevi- 
tably incensed  and  imbittered  the  South  beyond  endurance. 
Among  the  masses  of  the  people,  North  and  South,  sectional 
antipathy  supplanted  the  friendlier  feeling  of  earlier  times. 
Thus  differences  in  ideas,  sentiment,  and  institutions  had  made 
two  different  peoples,  almost  two  different  countries,  of  the 
North  and  the  South.  A  separation  was  felt  to  be  the  only 
logical  outcome. 

(4)  Lincoln  had  declared  that  "the  country  cannot  exist 
half  slave  and  half  free."  To  the  South  this  meant  that 
Lincoln  and  the  great  party  which  had  elected  him  would 
undermine  the  constitutional  rights  of  the  states  wherever 
and  whenever  it  was  practicable  to  do  so  in  the  interest  of 
abolition. 

The  question  with  every  Southerner  then  was,  What  is  best 
for  the  South  to  do  in  view  of  all  the  circumstances  ?  Can  the 
rights  of  the  states  be  preserved  best  in  the  Union  or  out  of 
the  Union  ?  The  question  was  answered  by  her  acts ;  she 
withdrew  from  the  Union. 


1  The  South  was  not  responsible  for  the  existence  of  African  slavery  in  the  United 
States  (§§  91,  139).  The  Southern  whites  suffered  more  from  its  existence  than 
anybody  else.  The  evils  of  the  institution  were  greatly  exaggerated.  Public  senti- 
ment in  the  South  discountenanced  cruelty  and  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  slave- 
holder. Masters  were  generally  kind  and  humane  to  their  slaves,  and  the  slaves 
were  generally  loyal  and  well  affected  toward  their  masters.  Exceptional  cases  of 
ill  treatment  were  often  taken  as  texts  for  the  slander  and  abuse  of  the  Southern 
people. 


344  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

520.  Cause  of  the  War.  —  The  Southern  states  in  seceding 
were  seeking  peace,  which  they  could  no  longer  hope  for  in  the 
Federal  Union.     They  did  not  desire  war,  and  many  believed 
that  war  would  not  follow  ;    for,  if   the    Federal   government 
had  observed  its  constitutional  powers  and  respected  the  original 
and  inherent  rights  of  the  states,  war  would  have  been  averted ; 
as  secession  was  a  right  of  the  states  (§§   518  et  seq.},  coer- 
cion —  that  is,  the  use  of  force  by  the  general  government  to 
keep   states   in   the    Union  —  was   beyond    its   constitutional 
powers.    Coercion  was  opposed  by  many  eminent  Northerners,1 
as  well  as  by  many  influential  journals  ;  "  indeed,  any  purpose 
of  direct  coercion  was  disclaimed  by  nearly  all." 2      Neverthe- 
less, as  the  states  seceded,  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Union  by  force,  if  necessary,  grew  stronger  in 
the  North,  until  it  became  a  passionate  desire  and  purpose.    It 
was  this  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  North  of  coercing  (§527) 
the  states,    and  the  acts    (§  528)   on    the   part  of   the  Fed- 
eral government  resulting  from    this   spirit,   that    caused  the 
war  between  the  states.      In  the  North  the  "National"  idea 
had  supplanted  the  theory  of  the  Constitution.3     To  enforce 
this  idea,  the  Government  of  the  United  States  undertook  to 
invade  and  conquer  the  South.      Thus  the  Southern  people 
were  forced  either  to  submit  to  aggression  or  to  fight.     They 
accepted  the  fateful  issue,  and  thus  began  one  of  the  mightiest 
struggles  of  modern  times. 

521.  The  Confederate  States  of  America.  —  South   Caro- 
lina, after  passing  the  Ordinance  of  Secession,  issued  a  call 
for  a  convention  of  such  states  as  should  secede.     This  con- 
vention was  appointed  to  be  held  at  Montgomery  on  February  4. 

1  Horace  Greeley  said  :  "  If  the  cotton  states  shall  decide  that  they  can  do  better 
out  of  the  Union  than  in  it,  we  insist  on  letting  them  go  in  peace.     The  right  to 
secede  may  be  a  revolutionary  one,  but  it  exists  nevertheless." 

2  Davis's  "Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederacy,"  Vol.  I,  p.  252. 
8  Woodrow  Wilson's  "  The  State,"  pp.  477-480. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


345 


Delegates  from  six  states,  all  the  seceding  states  except  Texas,1 
met  and  organized  by  electing  Howell  Cobb,  of  Georgia, 
as  permanent  chairman.  On  February  8  the  convention 
adopted  a  provisional  Con- 
stitution and  thus  created 
a  new  Union,  the  Confed- 
erate States  of  America, 
and  on  the  next  day,  Feb- 
ruary 9,  Jefferson  Davis, 
of  Mississippi,  was  elected 
president,  and  Alexander 
H.  Stephens,  of  Georgia, 
was  elected  vice-president. 
Nine  days  later  President 
Davis  was  inaugurated.  In 
his  inaugural  message  he 
reviewed  briefly  the  causes 
which  had  made  the  organ- 
ization of  the  new  Union 
necessary,  and  declared 
that  the  Confederacy  was  "  moved  by  no  interest  or  passion  to 
invade  the  rights  of  others,"  and  that  it  was  "  anxious  to  culti- 
vate peace  and  commerce  with  all  nations." 

Mr.  Davis  selected  as  members  of  his  first  cabinet: 2  Robert 
Toombs,  of  Georgia,  secretary  of  state;  S.  R.  Mallory,  of 
Florida,  secretary  of  the  navy;  Judah  P.  Benjamin,  of  Louisi- 


der  H.  Stephens. 


1  The  delegates  from  Texas,  whose  convention  had  adopted  the  Secession  Ordi- 
nance on  February  I,  awaited  the  result  of  the  popular  election  (February  23)  on 
the  adoption  of  the  Ordinance.      Texas  was  admitted  on  March  2,  the  anniversary 
of  Texan  independence. 

2  During  the  greater  part  of  the  existence  of  the  Confederacy,  however,  the  cabi- 
net stood  as  follows :  Judah  P.  Benjamin,  secretary  of  state ;  C.  G.  Memminger, 
secretary  of  the  treasury ;  James  A.  Seddon,  secretary  of  war  ;  S.  R.  Mallory,  secre- 
tary of  the  navy  ;  John  H.  Reagan,  postmaster-general.     Reagan  was  also  secretary 
of  the  treasury  during  the  last  few  months  of  the  Confederacy. 


346  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

ana,  attorney-general;  John  H.  Reagan,  of  Texas,  postmaster- 
general;  C.  G.  Memminger,  of  South  Carolina,  secretary  of 
the  treasury;  L.  P.  Walker,  of  Alabama,  secretary  of  war. 
He  also,  in  compliance  with  a  resolution  passed  by  the  Con- 
federate Congress,  appointed  A.  B.  Roman,  of  Louisiana, 
M.  J.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  and  John  Forsyth,  of  Alabama,  as 
commissioners  to  adjust  with  the  United  States  all  questions 
of  difference  between  the  two  governments. 

The  convention  which  formed  the  Confederate  Constitu- 
tion, remaining  in  session,  adopted,  on  March  n,  a  perma- 
nent Constitution  modeled  on  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  This  Constitution1  was  submitted  to  the  seceding 
states  and  ratified  by  them.  The  permanent  Confederate 
government  was  put  into  operation  February  22,  1862. 

522.    The    President    of    the    Southern  Confederacy.— 

Jefferson  Davis,  the  first  and  only  president  of  the  Confederate 
States,  was  born  in  1808  in  Kentucky.  His  father  removed 
shortly  after  to  Mississippi.  After  attending  Transylvania 
University,  Davis  entered  West  Point,  and  was  graduated  in 
the  class  of  1828.  He  served  in  the  army  until  1835,  when  he 
resigned  and  settled  upon  his  plantation  in  Mississippi.  In 
1845  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  As  Colonel  of  the  ist  Mis- 
sissippi Rifles  he  won  distinction  at  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista. 
He  became  United  States  senator  from  Mississippi  in  1847. 

l  Some  of  its  features  worthy  of  note  are  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  The  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty  was  clearly  defined. 

(2)  Foreign  slave  trade  was  forbidden. 

(3)  No  protective  tariff  was  to  be  levied. 

(4)  Members  of  the  cabinet  were  given  the  right  to  speak  in  Congress. 

(5)  The  term  of  office  for  president  and  vice-president  was  made  six  years,  and 
they  were  ineligible  for  reelection,. 

(6)  The  president  was  allowed  to  veto  single  items  in  appropriation  bills. 

(7)  Any  officer  of  the  Confederate  government  acting  solely  within  a  state  could 
be  impeached  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  both  branches  of  the  Legislature  of  the  state. 


JEFFERSON     DAVIS. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  347 

He  was  secretary  of  war  under  Pierce  from  1853  to  1857.  In 
1857  he  was  again  elected  senator,  and  in  1861  he  withdrew  from 
the  Senate  after  the  secession  of  Mississippi.  He  was  elected 
provisional  president  of  the  Confederate  States  for  one  year, 
on  February  9,  1861,  and  on  November  of  the  same  year  he 
was  unanimously  chosen  by  the  electoral  vote  of  the  Confed- 
erate States  to  be  president  for  six  years  from  February  22, 
1862.  On  that  date  the  Confederate  government  was  organized 
under  its  permanent  Constitution  at  Richmond,  Va.,  and  Mr. 
Davis  was  inaugurated.  He  served  the  South  ably  and  faith- 
fully until  the  Confederacy  was  destroyed.  He  was  captured 
by  Federal  troops  in  Georgia  at  the  close  of  the  war,  thrown 
into  a  dungeon,  and  grievously  mistreated.  He  was  kept  in 
prison  two  years  under  the  charge  of  treason,  but  the  Federal 
government  would  never  try  him  on  the  charge.  The  foremost 
jurists  of  the  country  advised  that  no  case  could  be  made 
against  him  (see  §  615).  He  was  at  last  released  on  bail, 
one  of  his  bondsmen  being  Horace  Greeley,  the  famous  Aboli- 
tionist editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  Mr.  Davis  spent  the 
remaining  years  of  his  eventful  life  chiefly  in  travel  or  at 
his  beautiful  Mississippi  home,  "  Beauvoir."  His  death,  on 
December  6,  1889,  called  forth  a  deep  and  spontaneous  out- 
pouring of  love  and  sorrow  from  the  people  whom  he  had  led 
so  loyally  in  prosperity  and  in  adversity. 

After  Calhoun,  Mr.  Davis  was  the  ablest  expounder  of  the 
doctrine  of  state  sovereignty  that  the  country  has  produced. 
A  Christian  gentleman,  he  was  tried  as  few  other  men  in  the 
world's  history  have  been  tried.  As  a  soldier,  statesman, 
orator,  thinker,  and  man,  he  is  worthy  of  all  honor. 

Vice-President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy .— Alexander 
H.  Stephens  was  born  in  1812  in  Georgia.  He  was  care- 
fully educated,  and  graduated  from  the  University  of  Georgia. 
After  teaching  for  a  year  he  became  a  lawyer.  He  served  in 


348  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  Georgia  Legislature,  and  in  1843  was  elected  to  Congress, 
and  was  reflected  six  times.  Stephens  believed  in  secession 
as  a  right,  but  opposed  the  step  as  a  matter  of  policy.  When 
Georgia  seceded,  however,  he  resigned  his  seat  in  Congress, 
and,  joining  his  fortunes  with  his  state,  became  vice-president 
of  the  Confederacy.  He  entered  United  States  Congress  again 
in  1877,  and  served  until  1882,  when  he  was  elected  governor 
of  Georgia.  He  died  in  1883,  before  the  close  of  his  term. 
In  Stephens  were  joined  a  slight  and  delicate  physical  frame 
and  an  intellect  of  wonderful  power.  Simple  and  unaffected 
in  manner,  broad  and  liberal  in  character,  pure  in  public  and 
private  life,  he  possessed  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  confidence 
and  affection  of  his  people. 

523.  End  of  Buchanan's  Administration.  —  Buchanan  was 
not  the  man  to  deal  with  the  great  crisis.  He  condemned  both 
secession  and  coercion  (§  513).  His  cabinet  was  divided,  and 
several  members  resigned.  Secretary  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan, 
withdrew  from  the  cabinet  because  the  president  would  not 
reinforce  Major  Anderson,  who  commanded  the  Federal  gar- 
rison at  Fort  Moultrie  in  Charleston  Harbor.  Secretary  John 
B.  Floyd,  of  Virginia,  resigned  because  Buchanan  permitted 
Anderson  to  transfer  his  forces  to  Fort  Sumter,  a  much  stronger 
position,  commanding  the  entrance  to  the  harbor.  The  presi- 
dent refused  official  recognition  to  the  Carolina  commissioners 
sent  to  arrange  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  Federal  garrison  from 
the  forts  (§517),  but  he  received  them  informally,  and  led 
them  to  believe  that  their  mission  would  be  successful.  Then 
he  tried  to  reinforce  Major  Anderson  by  sending  secretly  a 
steamer,  Star  of  the  West,  with  troops  and  provisions  —  an 
attempt  which  failed  only  because  the  vessel  was  driven  back 
by  Carolina  cannon.  This  act  of  hostility  to  the  seceded 
states  caused  Secretary  Jacob  Thompson,  of  Mississippi,  to 
retire  from  the  cabinet.  Congress  gave  the  president  no  aid 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  349 

(§  514).  Secession  was  consummated.  Sentiment  at  the 
North  was  crystallizing  in  favor  of  coercion.  Thus  Buchanan's 
administration  closed  beneath  the  shadows  of  the  impending 
conflict. 

524.  Summary.  —  The  decision  of  the   Supreme  Court  in  the  Dred 
Scott  case,  that  no  slave  could  be  a  citizen,  and  that  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise was  unconstitutional,  caused  political  excitement  in  the  North.     A 
Mormon  insurrection  was  quelled  by  United   States  troops.      To  relieve 
financial  stringency,  the  low  tariff  act  of  1857  was  passed.     The  debates  of 
Lincoln  and  Douglas  in  their  canvass  for  the  senatorship  of  Illinois  attracted 
national  attention.     The  first  maps  of  the  winds  and  currents  of  the  sea 
were  made  by  M.   F.  Maury.      John   Brown's   lawless  effort  to  free  the 
slaves  caused  excitement  and  apprehension  in  the  South.     In  the  presiden- 
tial campaign  of  1860  the  Democratic  party  split,  and  there  were  four  can- 
didates in   the  field.     Lincoln,   the   Republican   candidate,  was  elected. 
Believing  that  with  the  Republican  party  in  power  their  rights  under  the 
Constitution  were  no  longer  safe,  the  Southern  states  determined  to  with- 
draw from  the  Union.     Secession,  an  historic  and  legal  right  of  the  states. 
Efforts  at  compromise  proved  futile.     South  Carolina  led  off  in  December, 
followed  quickly  by  Georgia  and  the  five  Gulf  states.     The  government  of 
the  Confederate  States  was  organized  with  Jefferson  Davis  as  president 
and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  as  vice-president.     The  seceded  states  took 
possession  of  Federal  property  in  their  territory,  and  were  active  in  organiz- 
ing the  new  government.      In  the  North  sentiment  was  divided.     Major 
Anderson,  commanding  the  Federal  garrison  at  Fort  Moultrie,  transferred 
his  men  to  Fort  Sumter.    A  steamer  bearing  reinforcements  to  Fort  Sumter 
was  driven  back. 

525.  Thought  Questions.  —  On  what  occasion  did  Congress  first  limit 
the  extension  of  slavery  ?     Was  this  before  or  after  the  adoption  of  our 
present  Constitution  ?      Show  how  the  Dred  Scott  decision  affected  the 
extension  of  slavery.     Mention  another  important  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Court.     Give  an  outline  of  tariff  legislation  up  to  the  close  of  Buchanan's 
administration.     Mention  the  occasions  in  our  history  when  the  right  of 
secession  has  been  claimed. 


35O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS.    (GROWTH  OF  SECTIONAL  ANTAGONISM.) 

433.  The  New  President. 

f  Jackson's  policy. 

434.  Changes  in  Office. «T1  .. 

\  Policy  of  later  presidents. 

r  First  United  States  banks. 

j    Jackson's  opposition. 

435.  The  National  Bank.  4  L 

I    Removal  of  deposits. 

I  Final  action  of  Congress. 

The  first  tariff. 

Positions  of  New  England  and  the  South. 

,    Tariff  of  1816. 

436.  Tariff  Development.  X   „,  , 

I    Change  of  sentiment. 

I   Tariff  of  1824. 
I  Tariff  of  1828. 

The  Hayne-Webster  debate. 
Tariff  of  1832. 

,    Action  of  South  Carolina. 

437.  Nullification.  •<    . 

I   Action  of  the  president. 

|   The  Calhoun-Webster  debate. 
I  Compromise  tariff. 

(  The  Sacs  and  the  Foxes. 

438.  Indian  Uprisings.  ]  „,  .     . 

(  The  Semmoles. 

T  The  pioneers. 

j    Various  opinions. 

439.  440,  441.  The  Abolition  Crusade,  j   Deeds  rf  ^^ 

I  Action  of  Congress. 

f  First  railway  in  the  United  States. 

I    Steam  engines. 

442-  Railways.        !   pirst  locomotive> 

tes'   *   Increase  of  railways. 
Two  new  states. 

f  Opposition  to  Jackson. 

443-  The  Whig  Party.  «  Rise  of  Whigs. 

i   Presidential  election. 


GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM.  351 

446.  The  New  President. 

frj 
| 

VAN  BUREN'S 

ADMINIS-       J   448.  The  Sub.Treasury.  (  Th«  president's  views. 

l_  Sub-treasury  system. 


f  The  abolitionists. 
449-  Slavery.  |  Fedhi 


TRATION. 
1837-41. 

450.  Scientific  Progress. 

453.  Harrison's  Election  and  Death. 

454.  President  Tyler :  Services  and  character. 


,  Results. 
'  Trouble  with  Great  Britain. 


C  Repeal  of  Sub-treasury  law, 
Passaee  of  Bank  bills. 


455-  The  National  Bank  Controversy.^   ^ssage  of  Bank  bills. 

1   President  s  vetoes. 


456.  The  Ashburton  Treaty.      "  ,  ,    *     .  . 

3     I  Settlement  of  the  dispute. 

457.  The  Tariff  Legislation  :  The  Tariff  of  1842. 

Suffrage  in  Rhode  Island. 

458.  The  Dorr  Rebellion.  <j   Uprising  of  Dorr. 

New  constitution. 

Founder  of  the  sect. 

459.  The  Mormons.  <j   Troubles  in  Illinois. 

Settlement  in  Utah. 


H 

f  The  first  experiment. 

g 


460.  The  Telegraph. 


C  The  Texas  revolution. 
The  Republic  of  Texas. 

461.  Texas,  -i   The  state  of  Texas. 

Presidential  election. 
[_  Annexation. 

462.  Florida  and  Iowa  admitted. 


352 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


FOLK'S 
ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 

1845-49. 
(War    with 

Mexico.) 


465.  The  New  President.      *" ' 

466.  The   Oregon  (  Claims  of  England  and  of  U.  S. 

Boundary.     (  Boundary  settled. 

f  First  explorations. 
Trading  expeditions. 

467.  The  Oregon  Trail.  1   First  settlement. 

Rivalry  of  English. 
I    Whitman's  achievements. 


468.  Beginning  of 
the  War. 


Disputed  boundary  of  Texas. 
Orders  to  Gen.  Taylor. 
First  engagement. 


469.  Battles  in  Texas. 


Palo  Alto. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma. 


470.  Taylor's  Invasion  [.Capture  of  Monterey. 
Of  Mexico.         \  Battle  of  Buena  Vista. 


Scott's  Invasion 
of  Mexico. 


Vera  Cruz. 

March  to  the  capital. 

Fall  of  the  city. 


T  The  Mexican  province. 

472.  Conquest  of  California.  <    Fremont's  campaign. 

[_  Commodore  Sloat. 

473.  New  Mexico  Taken  :  Kearney's  campaign. 

474.  Treaty  of  Peace  :  New  State. 

C  The  discovery  of  gold. 

475.  476.  Gold  in  California.  <j   The  "gold  fever." 

[  Increase  in  population. 


TAYLOR 
AND 
FILLMORE'S 
ADMINIS-    ' 
TRATION. 
1849-53. 

479- 
480. 

481. 
482. 

C  The  services  of  Taylor. 
The  Presidents.  -<j   Death  of  Taylor. 
[  Services  of  Fillmore. 

The  Problem    ("  Military  government  of  California. 
of     the    Ad-  <    Movements  toward  statehood, 
ministration.    [_  The  old  controversy. 

Conflicting  Opinions. 

(  The  "  Omnibus  Bill." 
Compromise  of  1850.  |  Debate  on  ^  bm 

GROWTH    OF    SECTIONAL    ANTAGONISM. 


353 


TAYLOR 

AND 

FILLMORE'S 
ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 
(Continued) 


PIERCE'S 
ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 

I853-57- 


f  The  Fugitive-Slave  Law. 

483-  The  Fugitive-Slave   I   Distance  by  individuals. 
.  _.x  A.  •{   Nullification  by  states. 


Agitation. 


nderground  Railway." 
Views  of  Northern  statesmen. 


484.  Railroad  Development.  {  The  Erie  "— , 
^  Increase  of  railroads. 

487.  The  New  President. 

C  First  settlers  of  the  plains. 

488.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  j   Douglas's  bill. 

Bill.  1   Opposition  to  the  bill. 

L  Its  passage. 

j  489-  The  Struggle  for  J  Em^nt  societies. 

^    Immigration  to  Kansas. 


490.  The  Republican  Party. 


Conflicts. 

f  First  principles. 


\  Composition  of  the  party. 


491.  Our  First  World's  Fair. 

492.  Treaty  with  Japan  :  Gadsden  Purchase. 


495.  The  New  President. 

496,  497.  The  Dred  Scott 

Decision. 


f  Origin  of  the  suit. 
\   Appeals  and  final  decision. 
I   Results  of  the  decision. 


498.  Mormon  Insurrection. 

Cause. 

New  tariff  law. 


499.  Panic  of  1857.  j 


500.  Lincoln-Douglas 
Debate. 


501.  New  States. 


Position  of  Douglas  on  Mo.  Compromise. 

is  position  on  the  Kansas  question. 
Canvass  for  Illinois  senatorship 
Debates  of  the  candidates. 


Gold  in  Colorado. 
502.  Mineral  Discoveries.  ^   Silver 

[  Oil  wells. 


354  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

503.  Scientific  Progress.  {  Maps  of  winds  and  sea  currents. 

(   Bed  of  Atlantic  explored. 
f  Brown's  plan. 

504.  John  Brown's  Raid.  J  Seizure  of  U"  S'  arsena1' 

i    Capture  and  execution. 

I,  Feeling  in  North  and  South, 
f  Democratic  Convention  at  Charleston. 
505-510.  Presidential       First  sPUt  in  Democratic  party. 
Campaign    J   Constitutional  party. 
Of  i860.          Republicans. 

Second  split  in  Democratic  party. 
I  Position  of  the  parties  on  slavery. 
f  The  Abolitionists. 

511,  512.  The  Election.  J  Vote  of  the  sections' 

Popular  vote  and  electoral  vote. 

I  Effect  of  the  election, 
f  Northern  nullification. 

513.  Buchanan's  Message.  <   Anti-slavery  agitation. 

{_  Secession. 

(   Crittenden's  proposition. 

514.  Efforts  at  Compromise,  i  _. 

(   Peace  Congress. 

{Action  of  Legislature  of  South  Carolina. 
Convention  of  South  Carolina. 
Action  of  other  Southern  states. 
(  Action  of  Seceded  states. 
5x7-  Federal  Property,  j  South  Carolina,s  commissioners. 

518.  Right  of  Secession,  j  J1^™  view. 

(   Legal  view, 
f  Violations  of  Courts  by  Northern  states. 

519.  Reasons  for  Seces-  J   Centralizing  tendencies  of  North. 

sion.  ]   Sectional  feeling. 

I  Success  of  Republican  party. 

(   The  South's  desire. 

520.  Cause  of  the  War.  {  Growth  of  coercion  sentiment. 

f  Organization. 

521.  522.  The  Confederate  States.  J  Constitution. 

I   Sketch  of  President. 

I  Sketch  of  Vice-President. 

523.  End  of  Buchanan's  Ad-  f  Divisions  in  the  cabmet 

ministration.  1   RecePtion  of  S-  C-  commissioners, 

i   Affairs  at  Charleston  Harbor. 


THE    WAR    BETWEEN    THE    STATES. 


LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
1861-1865. 

FIRST  YEAR  OF  THE  WAR. 

526.  Services   and   Character  of  the  New   President.— 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  born  of  poor  parents,  in  Kentucky, 
February  12,  1809.  With  his  parents  he  removed  first  to 
Indiana  and  afterward  to  Illinois.  Young  Lincoln  was  reared 
amid  the  hardships,  privations,  and  heroic  energies  of  our 
pioneer  life.  He  worked  on  the  farm,  cleared  land,  split  rails, 
as  other  farm-hands  did ;  he  was  for  a  time  a  boatman  on  the 
Mississippi  River;  he  served  as  a  private  in  a  war  against  the 
Indians  ;  and  he  was  a  great  reader  and  student  of  the  few 
books  that  a  backwoodsman  in  Illinois  could  command  in 
those  days.  By  earnest  and  constant  effort  he  made  himself 
a  lawyer.  He  had  served  a  term  in  Congress  when  he  met 
Douglas  in  the  great  debate  in  1858.  Lincoln  was  a  man  of 
heroic  mold.  Simpfe,  sincere,  fearless,  he  understood  the 
masses  of  the  people,  and  they  gave  him  sooner  or  later  their 
deepest  respect  and  fullest  confidence.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  Lincoln  saved  the  Union. 

527.  The  New  Administration On  March  4,  1861,  Abra- 
ham Lincoln  was  inaugurated  president  of  the  United  States. 
Probably  no  man  ever  assumed  such  an   exalted  position   in 
more  trying  circumstances.     Seven  of  the  states  had  cast  off 
all  allegiance  to  the  Union.     The  country  was  in  confusion. 
There  were  those  who  even  feared  for  the  life  of  the  president, 


356 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


and  for  this  reason,  he  had  traveled  secretly  from  Philadelphia 
to  Washington. 

The  tone  of  his  inaugural  address  seemed  ominous  to  the 
seceded  states.  While  he  asserted  that  slavery  in  the  states 
had  nothing  to  fear  from  him,  at  the  same  time  he  declared 
secession  impossible,  and  expressed  his  intention  of  occupying 
all  Federal  property  in  the  seceded  states  and  collecting  reve- 
nues in  their  ports.  To  the  South  this  meant  war. 


528.   The  Question  as  to  Fort  Sumter.  —  The  condition 
of  affairs  at  Fort  Sumter  demanded  immediate  action.      The 

alternative  of 
peace  or  war  was 
thus  presented  : 
For  the  Federal 
government  to 
withdraw  the  gar- 
rison would  be  to 
agree  to  the 
South's  plan  of 
peaceable  seces- 
sion ;  for  it  to 
send  supplies  or 
reinforcements 


Charleston  Harbor. 


would  mean  to 
the  South  the 
adoption  of  the  policy  of  coercion,  and  would  be  a  practical 
declaration  of  war  (see  §§  517,  523). 

A  few  days  after  the  inauguration  of  President  Lincoln,  the 
commissioners  appointed  by*  President  Davis  (§  523)  arrived 
in  Washington  and  made  known  their  mission.  The  new 
administration  refused  to  receive  them,  as  this  would  be  to 
recognize  the  Confederate  States  as  a  foreign  power.  How- 
ever, the  commissioners  were  assured  by  Secretary  of  State 


FIRST    YEAR    OF    THE    WAR. 


357 


Seward,  through  Judges  Nelson  and  Campbell,  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  that  Fort  Sumter  would  soon  be  evacuated.  As  the 
fulfillment  of  this  promise  was  delayed,  intense  anxiety  was 
felt  as  to  the  course  President  Lincoln  would  pursue. 

529.  The  Fall  of  Fort  Sumter.  —  South  Carolina  con- 
sidered both  Major  Anderson's  removal  of  his  troops  to  Fort 
Sumter  and  the  attempt  of  the  Star  of  the  West  to  rein- 


m 


Fort  Sumter  after  Bombardment 

force  the  garrison  as  hostile  acts.  Yet  she  refrained  from  any 
act  of  aggression,  in  the  hope  of  a  peaceable  solution  of  the 
difficulty.  On  April  6  President  Lincoln  notified  Governor 
Pickens,  of  South  Carolina,  of  his  determination  to  provision 
Fort  Sumter.1  By  that  time  a  "  relief  squadron "  of  eight 
armed  vessels  and  2400  men  had  set  sail  from  New  York, 

1  Lincoln's  cabinet  on  a  final  vote  stood  two  (Chase  and  Blair)  in  favor  of  send- 
ing relief  to  Fort  Sumter  and  five  against.  Lincoln  then  decided  to  act  on  his  own 
responsibility. 


358  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  but  for  a  storm  at  sea  would  already  have  reached 
Charleston.  No  time  was  to  be  lost.  The  Confederate  au- 
thorities ordered  General  Beauregard  by  telegraph  to  take 
possession  of  the  fort.  Major  Anderson  refused  to  give  it  up. 
On  April  12  the  Confederates  opened  fire.  An  incessant 
cannonading  was  kept  up  by  both  sides  for  thirty-four  hours. 
Finally  the  fort  caught  fire,  and  Major  Anderson  surrendered. 
The  garrison  was  allowed  to  retire  with  the  honors  of  war. 
While  they  were  firing  a  salute  to  the  United  States  flag,  a 
cannon  burst,  and  one  soldier  was  accidentally  killed  and 
several  wounded,  —  the  only  blood  spilled  in  this  famous  fight. 
On  April  13,  1861,  Sumter  fell.  The  great  war  had  begun. 

530.  Effect  of  the  Fall  of  Sumter.  —  In  the  North.     For 
the  first  time  the  North  realized  that  the  South  was  in  earnest. 
Those  who  had    hitherto  opposed    coercion  joined  with  the 
administration.     Lincoln  called  for  75,000  troops  to  suppress 
the  rebellion  and  enforce  the  laws.     Many  times  that  number 
volunteered.     The  whole  North  became  united.     Soon  after- 
wards he  declared  a  blockade  of  all  Southern  ports  and  sus- 
pended the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  certain  instances.     This 
was  all  extra-constitutional,  but  the  urgency  of  the  occasion 
was  held  to  be  sufficient  justification. 

In  the  South  it  was  felt  that  the  North  had  begun  the  war  by 
sending  troops  and  provisions  to  garrison  Fort  Sumter.  All 
opposition  was  silenced.  The  invaders  must  be  repelled  at" 
any  cost.  President  Davis's  call  for  35,000  volunteers  was 
met  with  as  great  alacrity  as  was  President  Lincoln's  at  the 
North. 

531.  In  the  Border  States.  —  Lincoln's  call  for  troops  to 
force  the  seceding  states  back  into  the  Union  produced  intense 
excitement  in  the  border  states  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and  Missouri.     The 
governors  of  most  of  them  refused  in  emphatic  terms  to  obey 


The  "Stars  and  Bars," 

adopted   by  the 

Confederate  Congress, 

March  4,  1861. 


The  "Battle  Flag. 


The  "National  Flag," 

adopted   by  the 

Confederate  Congress, 

May  i,  1863. 


The  "National  Flag," 

adopted   by  the 

Confederate  Congress, 

March  4,  1865. 


FLAGS   OF   CONFEDERATE   STATES   OF  AMERICA. 


FIRST    YEAR    OF    THE    WAR.  359 

the  call,  and  four  states — Virginia,  Arkansas,  North  Carolina, 
and  Tennessee  —  soon  joined  the  Confederacy.  Kentucky  de- 
clared that  she  would  neither  secede  nor  join  in  the  war  against 
her  sister  states  of  the  South.  In  Missouri  the  majority  of  the 
people  were  opposed  to  secession,  but  the  state  authorities 
were  in  favor  of  joining  the  Confederacy,  and  a  bitter  civil 
strife  ensued.  By  acts  of  the  Confederate  Congress  both 
Kentucky  and  Missouri  were  subsequently  admitted  into  the 
Confederacy,  and  these  two  states  were  represented  in  both 
Federal  and  Confederate  congresses.  Maryland  was  kept  in 
the  Union,  although  a  large  element  of  her  people  sympathized 
with  the  South.  This  sympathy  was  manifested  in  Baltimore  by 
an  attack  made  by  citizens  on  some  Massachusetts  troops  who 
were  on  their  way  to  Washington.  Several  were  killed  on  both 
sides,  and  here,  on  April  19,  was  shed  the  first  blood  of  the  war. 

The  western  portion  of  Virginia  contained  many  Unionists. 
During  the  first  year  of  the  war,  this  section  of  the  state  was 
occupied  by  Union  armies.  Forty-eight  western  counties  and 
a  few  eastern  counties  held  by  Federal  troops  organized  a  state 
government,  which,  claiming  to  be  the  true  government  of 
Virginia,  provided  for  a  division  of  the  state.  (See  Constitu- 
tion, Art.  4,  §  3.)  Congress  ratified  this  action,1  and  in  1863 
admitted  the  state  of  West  Virginia  into  the  Union. 

By  June,  1861,  the  Confederacy  embraced  eleven  states,  not 
including  the  disputed  states  of  Missouri  and  Kentucky.  The 
capital  was  removed  from  Montgomery  to  Richmond. 

532.  Confidence  North  and  South. — The  North  had  about 
three  times  as  many  people  as  the  South  had.  Besides  this 
tremendous  advantage  in  numbers,  the  North  was  far  superior 
in  wealth  to  the  South.  All  the  machine  shops,  factories, 
foundries,  were  in  the  North,  so  that  whatever  was  needed  in 

1  During  the  debate  in  Congress,  Hon.  Thaddeus  Stevens,  of  Pennsylvania,  said  of 
this  measure,  "  We  know  it  is  not  constitutional,  but  it  is  necessary." 


360  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

waging  war  could  soon  be  provided.  Yet  the  Southern  people 
felt  confident  that  the  "  Stars  and  Bars  "  would  be  victorious. 
True,  they  recognized  the  advantages  that  the  North  possessed ; 
but  they  reckoned  confidently  that  the  world  could  not  long  do 
without  Southern  cotton.  They  felt  sure  that  the  nations  of 
Europe,  whose  looms  they  supplied,  would  not  quietly  permit 
those  looms  to  be  hushed.  They  especially  counted  on  the 
assistance  of  France  and  England.1  It  was  believed,  too,  that 
the  Southern  man  was  a  better  soldier  than  the  Northerner, 
because  he  was  accustomed  to  a  rough,  outdoor  life,  and  was 
familiar  with  the  use  of  firearms.  The  South  was  full  of  daring 
and  enthusiasm,  while  the  North  was  firm,  resolute,  and  un- 
daunted. Each  was  fully  confident  of  ultimate  success. 

533.  The  South's  Line  of  Defense.  —  East  of  the  Allegha- 
nies  there  was  a  strong  line  of  defense  extending  from  Norfolk 
around  the  northern  boundaries  of  Virginia.  At  Norfolk,  on 
the  peninsula  guarding  the  mouth  of  the  James  River,  was  sta- 
tioned an  army  under  Generals  Huger  and  Magruder.  In  the 
northern  part  of  Virginia  were  two  bodies  of  troops  under  Gen- 
erals Joseph  E.  Johnston  and  P.  G.  T.  Beauregard.  West  of  the 
mountains  the  Confederates,  under  command  of  General  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston,  had  a  strong  line  of  defense  extending  through 
southern  Kentucky  to  Columbus  on  the  Mississippi.  Their 
forces  occupied  Bowling  Green  and  Mill  Spring.  Fort  Henry, 
on  the  Tennessee,  and  Fort  Donelson,  on  the  Cumberland,  a 
distance  of  twelve  miles  apart,  were  two  important  Confederate 
strongholds.  The  Mississippi  River  was  strongly  fortified  from 
its  mouth  to  the  northern  limit  of  the  Confederate  States.  The 
coast  line  of  the  seceded  states  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the 
Potomac  was  strengthened  by  the  erection  of  new  forts.  The 
Confederacy  was  fortified  on  all  sides.  (See  double  page  map.) 

l  Foreign  nations,  while  declining  to  recognize  the  Confederate  States  as  an  inde- 
pendent nation,  promptly  recognized  them  as  belligerents,  thus  giving  Confederate 
cruisers  the  right  to  take  refuge  in  foreign  harbors. 


REFERENCE 

Approximate  limit  occupied  by 

U.S.  Troops  July  t,tstl 
Sherman's  March 

Railroads  ( 1  Union  States 

Blockade     1 1  Early  Secession 
Forts          I         I -Later 


from         92    Greenwich   87 


rom  15  Washington  10 


Bradley  f  Poatet,  Enyr't,  X.  f 


FIRST    YEAR    OF    THE    WAR.  361 

534.  Northern  Plan  of  Operation.  —  Against  these  four 
lines  of  defense,  offensive  preparations  were  made.  A  blockade 
of  Southern  ports  had  been  declared.  This  shut  out  all  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  the  foreign  world.  Although  at  the 
time  the  blockade  was  declared  there  were  no  ships  with 


which  to  enforce  it,  a  navy  was  soon  organized  which  effectu- 
ally shut  up  the  South  to  its  own  resources. 

Opposed  to  the  Confederate  forces  in  Northern  Virginia, 
and  threatening  an  attack  on  Richmond,  was  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  under  General  Irwin  McDowell.  Its  purpose  was  to 
break  through  the  line  of  defense,  and  capture  the  Southern 
capital.  Northern  armies  under  command  of  General  Fremont 
were  concentrated  against  the  line  of  fortifications  west  of  the 
Cumberland  Mountains. 


362  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

A  very  important  part  of  the  Northern  plan  was  the  opening 
up  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Loss  of  control  of  this  great  river 
would  not  only  deprive  the  South  of  an  important  means  of 
transportation,  but  also  divide  the  Confederacy.  The  attacks 
in  these  four  places  were  largely  independent  of  each  other, 
and  were  made  at  first  without  any  unity  of  plan.  We  will 
uote  them  as  the  campaigns  in  Virginia,  in  the  West,  on  the 
Mississippi,  and  Naval  Operations. 

535.  In  West  Virginia.  —  Three  months  passed  after  the 
fall  of  Fort  Sumter  before  any  movement  of  importance  took 
place.    The  only  conflicts  were  minor  ones  in  western  Virginia, 
where  small  bodies  of  troops  were  engaged. 

Both  sides  tried  to  secure  possession  of  this  portion  of  Vir- 
ginia. Several  battles,  mostly  unimportant,  were  fought.  The 
Union  army  was  commanded  by  General  George  B.  McClellan, 
who  in  this  campaign  won  the  name  of  a  successful  general.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  campaign  General  R.  E.  Lee  commanded 
the  Confederate  troops.  After  several  engagements,  of  which  the 
Federal  success  at  Rich  Mountain  was  the  most  important,  the 
Union  army  got  complete  possession  of  West  Virginia. 

536.  On  to  Richmond ;  Battle  of  Manassas  or  Bull  Run. 
—  President  Lincoln  had  made  his  first  call  for  volunteers  for 

three  months  only.  It  was  felt  that  some- 
thing must  be  done.  The  cry  in  the  North 
was,  "On  to  Richmond."  General  Scott, 
the  hero  of  the  Mexican  War,  now  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Union  forces,  on 
July  1 6  ordered  General  McDowell  with 
his  army  of  35,000  men  to  begin  the  move- 
ment from  Washington  to  Richmond. 
Between  the  two  capitals,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  south  of  Washington  and  five 
miles  north  of  Manassas  Junction,  flows  the  little  stream  of  Bull 


FIRST    YEAR    OF    THE    WAR. 


363 


Run,  a  tributary  of  the  Potomac.  South  of  this  stream  General 
Beauregard's  army  of  18,000  men  was  posted.  In  the  Shenan- 
doah  Valley,  west  of  Beauregard,  were  the  forces  of  General 
J.  E.  Johnston,  confronting  the  Federal  General  Patterson, 
whose  instructions  were  to  prevent  Johnston  from  joining 
Beauregard.  On 
July  1 8  General 
McDowell  came 
upon  the  Con- 
federates at  Bull 
Run,  and  was 
repulsed  in  a 
sharply  con- 
tested fight. 
Meanwhile  Gen- 
eral Johnston 
eluded  Patter- 
son, and  united 
part  of  his  forces 
with  those  of 
Beauregard.1  On 
July  21  Mc- 
Dowell crossed 
Bull  Run  above 
the  Confederate 
position,  and  at- 
tacked his  enemy 
upon  the  left  flank.  At  first  the  Federals  were  successful. 
The  troops  of  General  Bee  of  South  Carolina  were  falling 
back  in  disorder  when  they  encountered  General  T.  J.  Jack- 
son's brigade,  which  at  the  sound  of  fighting  had  hurried 
up  from  another  part  of  the  field.  Galloping  up  to  Jackson, 

1  The  total  Confederate  forces  at   Manassas  were  probably  30,000  men.     About 
half  the  total  forces  on  each  side  were  actually  engaged. 


Map  of  Seat  of  War  in  Virg 


364  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

his  voice  trembling  with  emotion,  Bee  exclaimed  :  "  General, 
they  are  beating  us  back !  "  Jackson,  unmoved  by  the  storm 
of  bursting  shells  and  whistling  bullets,  calmly  replied  : 
"  Sir,  we  will  give  them  the  bayonet."  Inspired  by  his 
words,  Bee  rushed  back  to  his  men,  and,  pointing  with  his 
sword  to  Jackson,  shouted  :  "  Look,  there  is  Jackson  standing 
like  a  stone  wall  !  Let  us  determine  to  die  here,  and  we  will 
conquer."  His  troops  rallied,  and,  taking  their  position  on  the 
right  of  the  leader  thenceforth  to  be  known  by  the  immortal 
name  of  "  Stonewall  Jackson,"  all  swept  steadily  forward,  and 
the  Federal  onset  was  checked.  A  desperate  conflict  followed, 
the  gallant  Bee  falling  at  the  head  of  his  men.  At  3  o'clock 
a  detachment  of  Johnston's  army,  hurrying  from  the  valley, 
struck  the  flank  of  the  Federal  advance.  At  the  same  time  a 
charge  of  the  entire  Confederate  line  was  ordered.  The  Union 
troops  were  unable  to  hold  their  ground,  but  gave  way,  and 
fled  panic-stricken  to  Washington. 

537.  Effect  of  the  Battle.  —  At  the  South  every  one  was 
jubilant.     Te  Deums  were  echoed  from  the  houses  of  worship. 
The  impression  spread  that  the  war  was  virtually  over ;  many 
of  the  volunteers,   under    this    impression,   returned   to  their 
homes.     In  the  North  a  deep  sense  of  humiliation  at  first  pre- 
vailed, but  this  feeling  soon  gave  place  to  a  determination  to 
wipe  out  the  disgrace  with  victory.     After  the  first  feeling  of 
despondency  came  the  conviction  that  the  war   was  to  be  a 
long  and  desperate  struggle.     This  defeat  taught  the  people  of 
the  North  that  they  must  prepare  for  a  terrible  war,  sucli  as 
the  western  continent  had  never  seen.     Congress  voted  to  call 
out  half  a  million  men.     To  the  North  the  defeat  was  a  blessing 
in  disguise,  while  it  made  the  South  overconfident. 

538.  Operations  in  Missouri.  — Governor  Jackson,  of  Mis- 
souri, tried  to  get  his  state,  in  which  sentiment  was  divided, 
to   join  the    Confederacy.       His    attempt   was   frustrated   by 


FIRST    YEAR    OF    THE    WAR. 


Nathaniel  Lyon,  who  seized  the  arsenal  at  St.  Louis  to  prevent 
its  being  used  to  arm  the  Confederates,  and  then  broke  up 
the  Confederate  encampment  of  Camp  Jackson.  The  gov- 
ernor called  for  Confederate  volunteers,  and  placed  General 
Sterling  Price  in  command. 
At  first  the  Confederates  were 
driven  back,  but  being  rein- 
forced by  troops  from  Arkansas 
and  Texas,  under  General  Ben 
McCulloch,  they  met  and  de- 
feated the  Union  army  at  Wil- 
son's Creek,  in  which  engage- 
ment Lyon  lost  his  life.  The 
Confederates  were  gradually 
driven  southward,  and  Missouri 
was  held  by  the  Union  forces.  operations  in  Missouri. 

539.  Operations  on  the  Coast.  —  On  the  sea  the  South 
was  at  a  disadvantage.     She  had  no  war-ships  to  break  up  the 
blockade.    President  Davis,  in  reprisal  for  the  blockade,  granted 
"letters  of  marque,"  permitting  private  vessels  sailing  under 
the  Confederate  flag  to  prey  on  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States.     A  few  Confederate  vessels  were  built  during  the  first 
year,  which  did  immense  damage.     The  two  most  famous  were 
the  Sumter  and  the  Nashville,     Steamers  built  for  swiftness 
to  run  the  blockade  frequently  succeeded  in  carrying  out  car- 
goes of  cotton  and  bringing  back  war  supplies  and  other  neces- 
sary articles  of   commerce.      During   1861    the  Union  navy 
captured  the  forts  of  Cape  Hatteras  and  Port  Royal,  S.C.     No 
important  naval  engagement  took  place  during  this  year. 

540.  The  Trent  Affair.  —  The  South,  as  we  have  already 
seen   (§  532),  hoped  for  aid  from  England  and  France.     To 
endeavor  to  secure  this  aid,  Mason  and  Slidell  were  sent  as 
commissioners   to    those    countries.     Running   the    blockade, 


366  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

they  reached  Havana,  and  there  embarked  on  an  English  mail 
steamer,  the  Trent,  for  England.  This  steamer  was  stopped 
by  the  United  States  sloop-of-war  San  Jacinto,  commanded  by 
Captain  Wilkes,  and  the  commissioners  were  taken  off  as  prison- 
ers of  war.  The  North  was  at  first  delighted  with  this  capture, 
but  England  angrily  demanded  the  release  of  the  prisoners, 
and  began  to  prepare  for  war.  It  seemed  that  the  hope  of  the 
Confederacy  was  to  be  realized,  and  war  between  England 
and  the  United  States  would  follow.  But  the  war  was  averted. 
The  Queen  and  Prince  Albert  urged  pacific  measures,  and 
Secretary  of  State  Seward  released  the  prisoners  and  placed 
them  under  British  protection.  The  capture  was  directly  con- 
trary to  the  principle  for  which  the  United  States  had  fought 
in  1812,  —  the  right  of  neutrals  to  be  free  from  search.  Secre- 
tary Seward  won  an  important  diplomatic  victory  in  this  trans- 
action, for  war  with  England  was  averted,  and  England  was 
committed  against  the  right  of  search. 

541.  Summary  of  the  First  Year  of  the  War.  —  At  Fort  Sumter  the 
war  began.  In  Virginia  the  Confederates  were  successful,  and  won  a  bril- 
liant victory  at  Bull  Run.  In  Missouri  the  Confederates  gained  a  victory 
at  Wilson's  Creek,  but  before  the  end  of  the  year  retired  to  the  extreme 
South,  leaving  the  state  in  the  hands  of  the  Union  soldiers.  The  navy  of 
the  United  States  was  very  successful,  both  in  shutting  up  the  ports, 
making  the  blockade  effectual,  and  in  capturing  several  important  forts. 

EVENTS  OF  1862. 

IN  THE    WEST. 

The  Confederate  line  of  defense  west  of  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  was  under  the  command  of  the  brilliant  Texas 
soldier,  Albert  Sidney  Johnston.  This  line  extended  from  the 
Cumberland  Mountains  through  Mill  Spring  to  Columbus  on 
the  Mississippi,  and  included  Fort  Henry  on  the  Tennessee 
and  Fort  Donelson  on  the  Cumberland,  the  forts  being  within 
twelve  miles  of  each  other.  Arrayed  against  this  line  of 


EVENTS    OF    1862. 


367 


defense  was  General  Buell  with  a' force  of  100,000  men  in  central 
Kentucky,  and  General  Grant  with  15,000  men  at  Cairo,  111. 

542.   Mill  Spring.  —  In  January  a  division  of  Buell's  army 
under  General  George  H.  Thomas  moved  against  the  Confed- 


Operations  in  the  West. 

erate  force  at  Mill  Spring.  The  gallant  General  Zollicoffer, 
commanding  the  Confederates,  was  killed  in  the  engagement, 
and  his  force  was  pushed  back  into  Tennessee. 

543.  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson. — The  Federals  had  con- 
centrated forces  and  gunboats  at  the  mouths  of  the  Tennessee 
and  the  Cumberland  Rivers,  with  the  intention  of  using  these 
streams  as  highways  for  penetrating  Confederate  territory.  In 
February  General  Grant  embarked  on  a  fleet  of  gunboats,  com- 
manded by  Commodore  Foote,  and  moved  up  the  Tennessee 
River.  When  within  a  few  miles  of  Fort  Henry,  Grant's  force 
marched  out  to  surround  the  fort  and  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  garrison.  Commodore  Foote  moved  up  the  river  and 
stormed  the  fort  from  the  water  side.  The  little  force  of  2500 


368  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

men  had  two  forces  aggregating  16,000  men  closing  in  upon  it. 
With  a  few  hundred  men,  the  commander  of  the  fort  engaged 
the  gunboats,  while  the  major  portion  of  his  command  left  the 
fort  before  Grant  appeared,  and  made  their  escape  to  Fort  Donel- 
son.  Only  a  small  force  surrendered,  but  the  loss  of  the  fort  was 
a  severe  blow  to  the  South,  as  the  Tennessee  was  now  open. 

Grant  and  Foote,  with  35,000  men,  now  moved  on  Fort  Don- 
elson.  The  fort  was  defended  by  15,000  men  under  Generals 
Floyd,  Pillow,  and  Buckner.  During  the  first  day  of  the  battle 
several  gunboats  were  disabled,  Commodore  Foote  was  wounded, 
and  the  fleet  retired  from  the  siege.  The  land  force  was  also 
driven  from  an  important  position,  so  that  a  line  of  retreat  was 
opened  for  the  Confederates.  Afterward  the  tide  turned  against 
the  Confederates,  and  the  Federal  forces  gained  a  strong  posi- 
tion. The  officers  commanding  the  fort  felt  their  danger,  but 
could  not  agree  upon  a  course  to  pursue.  Generals  Floyd, 
Pillow,  and  Forrest,  taking  three  or  four  thousand  men  with 
them,  left  the  fort  during  the  night  and  escaped.  General 
Buckner  asked  for  a  conference  to  arrange  terms  of  surrender. 
Grant  replied  that  he  would  grant  no  terms  but  "  unconditional 
surrender."  General  Buckner  surrendered  without  terms  the 
force  of  more  than  10,000  men  that  remained  in  the  fort. 

The  line  of  defense  was  now  broken,  Nashville  was  aban- 
doned, and  the  Confederate  forces  retired  through  Tennessee 
into  northern  Mississippi. 

544.  Battle  of  Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing.  —  General 
Grant  moved  up  the  Tennessee  River  and  encamped  at  Pitts- 
burg  Landing,  near  the  boundary  line  between  Mississippi  and 
Tennessee.  Buell's  army  was  marching  to  join  Grant,  and 
together  they  intended  to  crush  the  Confederates.  But  Gen- 
eral Johnston  had  no  idea  of  being  crushed,  and  he  did  not 
wait  to  be  attacked.  On  the  morning  of  April  6  he  fell  on 
Grant's  army  near  Shiloh  church,  and  a  severe  fight  ensued. 
The  Confederates  were  everywhere  victorious  ;  they  drove  the 


GENERAL   GRANT. 


EVENTS    OF     1862.  369 

Federal  forces  in  confusion  back  upon  the  gunboats  lying  in 
the  river.  But  at  the  height  of  their  success,  when  it  seemed 
that  Grant's  army  would 
be  captured  or  forced  to 
surrender,  late  in  the  after- 
noon General  Johnston, 
whose  brilliant  personal 
leadership  had  inspired 
the  success,  was  killed. 
Beauregard  came  from  a 
sick  bed  to  take  command, 
some  confusion  ensued, 
and  the  final  blow  was 
not  struck.  During  the 
night  Buell's  army  joined 
Grant's,  and  the  Confed- 
erates were  outnumbered 

General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston. 

nearly  two  to  one.     The 

next  morning  the  combined  Federal  armies  attacked  the  Con- 
federates, and,  after  a  day  of  the  most  stubborn  and  bloody 
fighting,  drove  the  Confederates  from  the  positions  they  had 
gained  under  Johnston.  Beauregard  retired  to  Corinth.  In 
this  battle  the  Confederates  had  40,000  ;  the  Federals,  on  the 
second  day,  about  70,000. 

General  Halleck  now  took  charge  of  the  united  Federal 
forces  of  the  west,  and  slowly  advanced  upon  Corinth.  Beau- 
regard  withdrew  from  Corinth  and  retreated  southward. 

545.  On  the  Upper  Mississippi.  —  When  the  Confederates 
retired  from  Kentucky,  Columbus  on  the  Mississippi  and  Island 
No.  10,  two  Confederate  strongholds,  were  given  up.  With 
their  withdrawal  from  Tennessee  came  the  fall  of  Fort  Pillow 
and  Memphis,  The  Mississippi  was  thus  opened  as  far  as 
Vicksburg.  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Union  army,  and  the  state  officials  of  Tennessee 


3/O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

withdrew  from  Nashville.     President  Lincoln  appointed  Andrew 
Johnson  military  governor  of  Tennessee. 

546.  Battle  of  Pea  Ridge.  —  It  had  been  General  Johnston's 
plan  to  have  the  troops  west  of  the  Mississippi  unite  with  his 
forces  before  any  attack  was  made  on  the  Union  army.     This 
plan  was  frustrated  by  the  Union  army  under  General  Curtis. 
A  bloody  engagement  at  Pea  Ridge,  or  Elk  Horn,  in  Arkansas, 
on  March  7,  in  which  the  Confederates  suffered  severe  loss, 
including  the  gallant  General    Ben   McCulloch,   destroyed  all 
hope  of  reinforcing  Johnston,  and  left  Missouri  in  the  hands 
of  the  Union  army. 

547.  Bragg' s  Invasion.  —  After  Beauregard  evacuated  Cor- 
inth he  was  succeeded  by  General  Bragg,  who  undertook  to 
invade  Tennessee  and   Kentucky  and  recover,  them  for  the 
Confederacy.     He  occupied  Chattanooga,  and,  aided  by  Gen- 
eral Kirby  Smith,  penetrated  Kentucky  to  the  vicinity  of  Louis- 
ville without  much  opposition.    General  Smith's  command  won 
a   victory   at   Richmond,    Kentucky.      Buell,    who   had   been 
watching  Bragg's  movements,  ran  a  race  with  him  and  got  to 
Louisville  first.     The  battle  of  Perryville  was  fought  between 
the  two  armies  on  the  8th  of  October.    The  Confederates  were 
successful   in  the  fight,  but  the  Union  forces  were  so  much 
stronger   in    numbers   that    Bragg   retreated   to  Chattanooga, 
carrying  with  him  an  immense  quantity  of  arms,  ammunition, 
and  other  supplies  which  he  had  captured.     The  Union  army 
took  position  at  Nashville. 

548.  luka  and  Corinth.  —  When  Bragg  moved  northward 
he  left  a  strong  Confederate  force  under  Van  Dorn  and  Price 
to  watch  Grant,  who  occupied  Corinth.     Two  of  the  hottest 
fights  of  the  war  occurred  between  these  armies.     At  luka  the 
Confederates  lost  the  day,  and  their  attack  on  Corinth,  though 
at  first  successful,  ended  in  defeat1  (October  4,  1862). 

1  Colonel  W.   P.   Rogers  of  the  Second  Texas  led  a  charge  upon  the  Federal 
intrenchments,  and  fell  with  the  colors  in  his  hand  just  as  he  had  leaped  upon  the 


EVENTS    OF     1862.  371 

549.  Battle  of  Murfreesboro.  —  From  Chattanooga  the  Con- 
federate troops  moved  toward  Nashville,  intrenching  themselves 
at  Murfreesboro  with  the  intention  of  going  into  winter  quarters. 
But  Rosecrans,  who  had  succeeded  Buell  in  command  of  the 
Union  army,  decided  to  attack  the  Confederates.    Bragg  moved 
out  to  meet  him.      The   armies   were    unequally   matched  — 
43,000  Federals  to  37,000  Confederates  — and  here,  on  the  last 
day  of  the  year,  began  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war. 
By  a  singular  coincidence  each  of  the  generals  had  formed  the 
plan  of  attacking  his  opponent's  right  wing.     Bragg  was  first; 
and  his  left  wing  drove  back  Rosecrans's  right,  with  great  loss, 
so  as  to  uncover  half  of  the  field,  and  to  permit  General  Wharton, 
of  Texas,  with  his  cavalry  force,  to  get  in  the  rear  of  the  Union 
army,  and  intercept  supply  trains,  and  capture  2000  prisoners. 
The  next  attack  was  made  on  the  Union  center.     Here  the 
defense  of  the   Union  soldiers  was  heroic,  but  the  line  was 
carried  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.     The  remaining  wing  was 
now  charged,  but  it  was  in  a  very  advantageous  position  and 
held  its  ground.     The  .battle  lasted  three  days,  neither  side 
gaining  a  victory.     On  the  night  of  January  3  (1863),  Bragg 
withdrew  his  forces,  and  both  armies  went  into  winter  quarters. 
The  loss  of  the  Confederates  was  9865 ;  of  the  Federals,  13,249. 

550.  On  the  Lower  Mississippi;  Capture  of  New  Orleans; 
Sibley  in  New  Mexico.  —  We  have  seen  (§  534)  that  it  was  an 
important  part  of  the  plan  of  conquering  the  South  that  it  should 
be  deprived  of  the  control  of  the  Mississippi  River.     We  have 
also  seen  (§545)  that  the  upper  Mississippi  had  been  opened 
as  far  as  Vicksburg.     New  Orleans  was  a  place  of  much  im- 
portance to  the   Confederacy,  both  because  it  was  the  great 

embankment  and  was  cheering  on  his  men.  The  Federal  troops,  in  admiration  of  his 
bravery,  gave  his  body  an  honorable  burial.  General  W.  L.  Cabell,  whose  desperate 
valor  won  him  the  appellation  of  "  Old  Tige,"  was  severely  wounded  on  the  Federal 
breastworks  while  charging  at  the  head  of  an  Arkansas  brigade.  It  was  at  Corinth 
that  General  Sul  Ross,  of  Texas,  obtained  the  title  of  "the  hero  of  Corinth." 


372  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

metropolis  of  the  South,  and  because  it  guarded  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  November,  i86i,the  United  States  govern- 
ment decided  to  fit  out  an  expedition  to  capture  New  Orleans. 
This  expedition  (the  most  powerful  naval  force  that  had  ever 
sailed  under  the  United  States  flag)  consisted  of  nearly  fifty 
armed  vessels,  including  war  sloops,  gunboats,  and  bomb 
schooners,  the  bomb  schooners  being  a  special  force  under  the 
control  of  Commodore  Porter.  The  fleet  was  commanded  by 
Captain  Farragut.  The  vessels  carried  a  land  force  of  15,000 
soldiers  under  General  B.  F.  Butler  to  be  used  as  occasion  might 
require.  New  Orleans,  hearing  early  in  the  year  of  the  mighty 
preparations  for  its  capture,  set  to  work  as  best  she  could  to 
prepare  defenses.  On  opposite  banks,  seventy-five  miles  below 
the  city,  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  were  built  to  guard  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  A  raft  of  logs  and  hulks,  lashed 
together  with  chains,  was  stretched  across  the  river  above  the 
forts  to  bar  the  passage  of  vessels.  With  its  utmost  efforts  the 
city  could  collect  only  a  small  fleet  of  twelve  vessels.  Of  these 
the  only  iron-clad  war-ship,  the  Louisiana,  from  which  much  was 
hoped,  could  not  be  gotten  ready  in  time,  and  remained  tied  up  to 
the  bank  during  the  engagement.  Rafts  designed  to  be  fired  and 
pushed  down  upon  the  enemy  were  also  prepared.  All  the 
Confederate  soldiers  except  one  company  had  been  sent  to  the 
front;  the  city  was  defended  by  a  force  of  3000  volunteers, 
poorly  armed  and  inexperienced,  commanded  by  Major  Lovell. 
On  April  18  the  mortar  boats  began  shelling  the  forts;  they 
kept  up  the  bombardment  six  days,  firing  in  all  about  20,000 
shells.  The  forts  returned  the  fire  with  vigor.  Little  damage 
was  done  to  either  side.  Captain  Farragut,  tired  of  the  futile 
attack  upon  the  forts,  resolved  to  try  other  measures.  A  night 
expedition  cut  the  chains  which  held  the  great  raft,  and  before 
day  on  the  morning  of  the  24th  the  fleet  of  gunboats  attempted 
to  proceed  up  the  river.  A  fierce  engagement  ensued.  The 
flash  of  cannon  was  incessant,  collisions  both  accidental  and 


EVENTS    OF    1862.  373 

intended  crippled  and  sank  vessels,  burning  boats  drifted  help- 
lessly down  stream,  and  fire-rafts  were  pushed  against  the  Union 
ships.  Many  of  the  Confederate  boats  were  destroyed  by  the 
enemy,  others  were  destroyed  by  their  crews  to  keep  them  from 
falling  into  the  enemy's  hands  ;  only  one  was  saved.  The  Union 
forces  lost  many  boats,  but  in  the  end  thirteen  of  them  steamed 
up  to  New  Orleans  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  city.1 
The  volunteer  force,  fearing  to  provoke  the  bombardment  and 
destruction  of  the  city,  offered  no  resistance.  General  Butler 
came  in  with  his  soldiers  and  established  military  control.  His 
rule  was  so  unjust,  tyrannical,  and  rapacious  that  President 
Davis  issued  a  proclamation  outlawing  him. 

The  loss  of  New  Orleans  was  the  greatest  blow  the  Confed- 
eracy received  during  the  year.  The  Mississippi  River  was 
now  almost  opened  to  the  Union  vessels.  The  Confederates 
still  held  strong  forts  at  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson,  and  con- 
tinued to  hold  them  during  this  year. 

In  New  Mexico.  —  In  the  winter  of  1861-2  a  brigade  of 
Texans  under  General  H.  H.  Sibley  entered  New  Mexico, 
defeated  the  Federal  troops  under  General  Canby  at  Val  Verde, 
occupied  Santa  Fe,  and  were  again  successful  in  the  engage- 
ment at  Glorietta.  Finding  his  small  force  and  scanty  supplies 
inadequate  to  hold  the  territory,  Sibley  retired  toward  Texas. 
At  Peralta  a  severe  engagement  took  place.  The  Texans,  con- 
tinuing their  retreat,  returned  to  San  Antonio. 

IN  THE  EAST. 
OPERATIONS  ON  THE  SEA. 

551.  The  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac.  —  For  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  the  world,  vessels  covered  with  iron  were  to 

1  The  Union  force  had  302  guns,  63  per  cent  of  which  were  above  32-pound  calibre. 
The  Confederate  forts  and  vessels  had  166  guns,  only  30  per  cent  of  which  were  above 
32-pound  calibre.  The  Union  fleet  that  steamed  up  the  river  carried  192  guns,  while 
the  Confederate  fleet  had  only  40  guns,  and  16  of  these,  the  best,  were  on  the 
useless  Louisiana. 


374 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


be  used  in  naval  warfare.  England  and  France  had  built  iron- 
clads, but  they  had  never  been  tested  in  battle.  The  Confed- 
erates raised  the  frigate  Merrimac,  which  had  been  sunk  when 
the  Federal  navy-yard  at  Norfolk  was  abandoned,  and,  after 
plans  originated  by  John  M.  Brooke,1  refitted  it  as  an  iron- 
clad ram.  When  finished,  this  vessel,  rechristened  the  Vir- 
ginia, presented  a  very  formidable  appearance,  and  was  the  first 
iron-clad  ever  tried  in  battle.  Cannon  balls  rebounded  harm- 
less from  her  sides.  On  March  8  she  left  the  port,  steamed  into 

Hampton  Roads  (at  the 
mouth  of  the  James),  and 
played  havoc  with  the  pow- 
erful Union  fleet  lying 
there.  The  Cumberland 
was  sunk,  the  Congress  was 
burnt,  and  the  other  ships 
were  driven  into  the  shoals 
or  put  to  flight.  Conster- 
nation spread  in  the  North, 
where  it  was  feared  that 
the  new  iron-clad  would 
attack  her  great  sea-ports. 
Even  Washington  itself 
would  be  at  the  mercy  of 
the  monster. 

While  the  Merrimac  was  being  iron-  plated,  John  Ericsson  had 
been  busy  at  New  York  inventing  and  constructing  a  turret  ship, 
named  the  Monitor.  It  was  a  small,  flat  craft,  much  smaller 
than  the  Virginia,  and  very  much  less  exposed  to  the  enemy's 
fire,  and  carried  in  a  revolving  turret  two  guns  so  enormous 
that  they  could  shoot  heavier  balls  than  had  ever  been  used  in 
war.  So  great  was  the  hurry  to  get  the  Monitor  to  Hampton 
Roads  that  the  vessel  had  not  been  tested,  and  little  was  known 

1  Brooke  was  an  associate  and  co-laborer  of  Commodore  Maury.  He  had  invented 
an  apparatus  for  deep-sea  soundings  (§  503). 


EVENTS    OF    1862. 


375 


of  its  real  merit.  It  reached  Hampton  Roads  in  the  night,  and 
took  up  a  position'  behind  the  Minnesota.  Early  the  next  morn- 
ing when  the  Virginia  steamed  forth  to  complete  her  work  of 
destruction,  she  was  unexpectedly  confronted  by  her  little  iron 
opponent.  Four  hours  of  desperate  combat  ensued.  When 
the  righting  ceased  the  Monitor  was  considerably  damaged. 
She  retired  to  shallow  water  where  the  Virginia  could  not 
reach  her  and  where  she  was  protected  by  the  guns  along 
shore.  She  was  afterwards  instructed  not  to  risk  another 
engagement  with  the  Virginia,  and  though  the  Virginia  twice 
afterward  appeared  in  the  waters  of  Hampton  Roads,  the 
Monitor  kept  her  safe  position.  When  Norfolk  was  captured 
by  the  Federals  the  Virginia  was  destroyed  by  the  Confederates. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  the  Monitor  foundered  off  Cape  Hatteras. 

This  day's  battle  revolutionized  naval  warfare.  Both  the 
Confederate  and  United  States  governments  began  the  con- 
struction of  iron- 
clad vessels,  and 
the  navies  of  all 
foreign  powers 
had  to  be  recon- 
structed. 

The  Union 
navy  was  suc- 
cessful in  many 
places  along  the 
coast.  At  the  end  of  the  year  only  two  large  sea-port  towns  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  Charleston  and  Wilmington,  were  preserved 
to  the  Confederacy.  The  blockade  became  more  and  more 
effectual  as  the  places  to  be  guarded  decreased  in  number. 

OPERATIONS  IN  VIRGINIA. 

552.  Advance  toward  Richmond ;    the  Peninsular  Cam- 
paign. —  McClellan,  who,  on  account  of  his  successes  in  West 


The  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac. 


376 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Virginia,  had  been  called  to  take  command  of  the  Northern 
army,  had  spent  the  winter  of  1861-2  in  drilling  his  men  and 
preparing  for  an  advance  on  Richmond.  Instead  of  pursuing 
the  plan  of  the  previous  year,  he  decided  to  sail  down  the 
Potomac  and  Chesapeake  Bay,  and,  landing  at  Fortress  Mon- 


Eastern  Virginia  and  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

roe,  to  approach  the  Confederate  capital  by  way  of  the  penin- 
sula between  the  James  and  the  York  Rivers.  General  J.  E. 
Johnston  now  commanded  the  Confederate  forces  on  the 
Peninsula.  After  a  month's  siege,  early  in  May,  Yorktown 
was  evacuated.  Johnston  withdrew  before  the  superior  forces 
of  McClellan.  At  Williamsburg  an  indecisive  engagement 
took  place.  McClellan  continued  to  advance.  The  Confed- 


GENERAL    LEE. 


EVENTS    OF    l862.  377 

crates  abandoned  Norfolk  and  Federal  gunboats  steamed  up 
the  James  toward  Richmond,  which  was  now  threatened  by 
McClellan  from  the  Peninsula,  McDowell  from  Fredericksburg, 
and  by  the  Union  fleet.  The  batteries  of  Fort  Darling  on 
James  River,  eight  miles  below  Richmond,  stopped  the  advance 
of  the  Federal  gunboats.  In  order  that  when  a  junction  with 
McDowell  was  made,  an  army  might  still  be  between  the 
Confederate  army  and  Washington,  McClellan  threw  but  a 
part  of  his  forces  across  the  Chickahominy  River.  While  the 
river  was  in  a  swollen  condition,  separating  the  two  divisions, 
Johnston  attacked  that  part  of  the  army  which  was  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Chickahominy.  In  this  battle,  called  Seven 
Pines,  or  Fair  Oaks,  McClellan  barely  escaped  a  complete 
rout.  Johnston  was  severely  wounded  in  the  battle,  and  had 
to  withdraw  from  the  command.  He  was  succeeded  by  Gen- 
eral Robert  E.  Lee,  who  commanded  the  army  of  Virginia 
until  the  close  of  the  war. 

553-  "Stonewall"  Jackson's  Valley  Campaign. —  Mc- 
Clellan had  expected  to  be  reinforced  by  McDowell.  To 
prevent  this,  General  T.  J.  Jackson  undertook  to  clear  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  of  Federal  troops,  and  even  to  threaten 
Washington.  The  campaign  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in 
history.  Concealing  his  plans  even  from  his  own  officers,  in 
forty  days  he  marched  his  army  of  15,000  men  nearly  400  miles, 
attacked  and  defeated  in  succession  four  bodies  of  troops  com- 
manded by  Milroy,  Banks,  Fremont,  and  Shields,  aggregating 
three  times  his  own  force.  Washington  was  thought  to  be  in 
danger,  and  McDowell,  instead  of  reinforcing  McClellan,  was 
called  back  to  the  capital  to  protect  it  from  Jackson.  Having 
secured  this  result,  Jackson  left  the  valley  region  and  had  united 
his  forces  with  Lee's  before  his  adversaries  knew  what  he  was 
about.  Meanwhile,  General  J.  E.  B.  Stuart  had  made  his 
famous  cavalry  ride  around  McClellan's  army,  doing  much 


378 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


damage  and  greatly  interfering  with  that  commander's  plans, 
besides  learning  the  exact  position  of  his  troops. 


554.  The  Seven  Days'  Battles.  —  Lee  now  determined  to 
strike  that  part  of  McClellan's  army  which  was  still  north  of 
the  Chickahominy.  Keeping  part  of  his  forces  near  Richmond 
to  defend  the  city,  he  threw  a  body  of  troops  across  the  Chicka- 
hominy to  attack  the 
Federal  positio:.  at 
Mechanicsville,  while 
Stonewall  Jackson,  from 
the  Shenandoah  Valley, 
at  the  same  time  fell 
upon  the  enemy's  flank. 
McClellan  was  driven 
from  his  intrenchments 
(June  26).  At  Gaines's 
Mill,  on  the  next  day, 
Lee  again  attacked  him 
and  won  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory. Discouraged  by 
defeat,  and  cut  off  from 
his  base  of  supplies  on 
the  York  River,  Mc- 


The  Seven  Days'  Battles. 

Clellan  now  withdrew  all  his  forces  to  the  south  side  of  the 
Chickahominy,  and  began  a  retrograde  movement  toward  the 
shelter  of  the  Union  gunboats  on  the  James  River,  where  a 
new  base  of  supplies  could  be  established.  His  retreating 
columns  were  assailed  by  the  Confederates  on  successive 
days  at  Savage  Station,  Frazer's  Farm,  and  White  Oak 
Swamp,  suffering  heavy  loss.  At  Malvern  Hill  Lee's  victo- 
rious troops  were  checked.  But  during  the  night  McClellan 
continued  his  retreat,  finally  reaching  the  protection  of  the 
Federal  gunboats  at  Harrison's  Landing  on  the  James.  Here 


EVENTS    OF     l862.  379 

he  began  to  reorganize  his  discomfited  forces.  For  seven 
days  there  had  been  incessant  fighting.  McClellan's  troops 
were  recalled  to  Washington,  and  the  Peninsular  Campaign 
ended  in  failure.  (Map,  p.  376.) 

555-  Pope  in  Command ;  Second  Battle  of  Manassas.  — 
The  forces  around  Washington  were  organized  and  united  under 
the  name  of  the  Army  of  Virginia,  and  General  John  Pope,  who 
had  won  considerable  reputation  in  the  capture  of  Island  No.  10 
on  the  Mississippi,  was  put  in  command.  McClellan's  forces 
were  ordered  to  unite  with  him.  Pope  chose  the  overland 
route  against  Richmond.  While  McClellan  was  withdrawing 
his  forces  and  Lee  was  guarding  Richmond  from  the  Peninsula, 
Jackson  was  sent  to  check  Pope.  He  defeated  Pope's  right 
wing  at  Cedar  Mountain.  As  McClellan's  command  joined 
Pope,  Lee's  army  was  drawn  forward  to  resist  the  united  enemy. 
On  August  30  Lee  and  Jackson  attacked  the  combined  Federal 
forces  at  the  old  battle-ground  of  Bull  Run.  In  this  second 
battle  of  Manassas  Pope's  army  was  utterly  defeated,  and  after 
an  ineffectual  stand  at  Chantilly  (September  i)  took  refuge 
within  the  fortifications  of  Washington.  The  combined  Union 
forces  around  Washington  were  again  placed  in  command  of 
McClellan. 

556.  First  Invasion  of  the  North;  Battle  of  Antietam 
or  Sharpsburg.  —  Lee  determined  to  invade  the  North.  He 
crossed  into  Maryland  and  occupied  Frederick  City,  north  of 
Washington,  threatening  both  Baltimore,  and  Philadelphia. 
McClellan  moved  forward  to  intercept  his  march  and  Lee 
turned  to  the  northwest.  On  the  way  Jackson  captured 
Harper's  Ferry  with  12,000  Federal  troops  and  large  military 
stores.  McClellan  hastened  after  Lee  and  overtook  him  at 
Sharpsburg  on  Antietam  Creek.  Here  on  September  17  was 
fought  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war.  Lee's  army 
numbered  about  40,000  and  McClellan's  more  than  twice  as 


380  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

many.  Each  side  lost  over  10,000  men  without  either  gaining 
the  victory.  Lee,  unable  to  defeat  McClellan,  who  was  con- 
tinually receiving  reinforcements,  had  to  abandon  his  invasion 
of  the  North,  and  to  retire  across  the  Potomac  into  West 
Virginia.  The  Federal  government,  again  dissatisfied  with 
McClellan,  put  General  Ambrose  E.  Burnside  in  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 

557.  Battle  of  Fredericksburg.  —  Burnside  chose  to  march 
upon  Richmond  by  way  of  Fredericksburg,  hoping  to  reach 
that  place  before  Lee.    His  army  now  numbered  about  125,000, 
about  twice  as  many  men  as  Lee  had.    Crossing  the  Rappahan- 
nock,  he  found  that  Lee  had  fortified  himself  at  Fredericksburg. 
The  Federal  army  attacked  (December  13)  and  were  repulsed 
with  heavy  loss,1 — over  12,000  men,  more  than  twice  as  many 
as  the  Confederates  lost.     Burnside  withdrew  across  the  Rap- 
pahannock  and  was  superseded  by  General  Joe  Hooker.     The 
two  armies  lay  facing  each  other  without  any  engagement  until 
spring. 

558.  Emancipation  Proclamation.  —  President  Lincoln  had 
announced   that   the   war   was    not    against    slavery,    but    to 
maintain  the  Union.     Accordingly  when  the  Union  generals 
conquered  slave  territory   and  wished  to  declare  the  slaves 
therein  free,  he  forbade  them.     Slaves  were  becoming  more 
and  more  useful  to  the  Confederates  as  teamsters,  builders  of 
earth-works,  etc.     General  Butler  declared  that  they  were  sub- 
ject to  capture  as  any  other  property,  and  accordingly  claimed 
them  as  "  contraband  of  war." 

The  president  had  recommended  to  Congress  to  appropriate 
money  to  purchase  the  slaves  of  loyal  masters.  But  the  con- 
gressmen from  the  slave  states  which  had  not  seceded  opposed 
this  policy  and  it  was  not  adopted.  At  last  Lincoln  decided 

1  Official  estimate  of  the  Federal  loss  is  12,410 ;  of  the  Confederate  loss,  11,172. 


EVENTS    OF    1862.  381 

that  slavery  must  be  abolished.  He  reached  this  conclusion 
early  in  the  year  1862,  but  did  not  announce  it  until  September. 
The  Confederates  had  been  very  successful  in  Virginia,  and 
such  a  proclamation  would  create  the  impression  that  the 
North  was  in  a  critical  condition  and  grasping  at  straws.  The 
battle  of  Antietam,  though  a  drawn  battle,  was  claimed  as  a 
Union  victory  because  Lee  withdrew  from  Maryland.  Lincoln 
seized  the  opportunity.  He  issued  a  preliminary  proclamation 
declaring  that  after  January  i,  1863,  all  the  slaves  in  that  part 
of  the  Union  then  in  arms  against  the  United  States  government 
would  be  set  free.  No  attention  was  paid  to  the  announcement, 
and  accordingly  on  January  i,  1863,  he  issued  the  famous 
Proclamation  of  Emancipation.  This  proclamation  did  not  apply 
to  the  Union  states,  nor  to  those  portions  of  the  Confederacy 
which  were  then  under  Federal  control  (§§  534,  544,  545). 

559.  Summary  of  Events  of  1862.  — In  the  East.  The  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  a  large  and  thoroughly  drilled  force,  was  put  under  the  command 
of  General  McClellan.  He  attempted  to  reach  Richmond  from  the  south- 
east by  way  of  the  Peninsula.  Washington  was  protected  meanwhile  by  an 
army  under  McDowell.  Johnston,  the  Confederate  leader,  slowly  withdrew 
towards  Richmond.  He  was  wounded  at  Seven  Pines,  and  was  succeeded 
by  General  R.  E.  Lee.  To  prevent  McClellan  from  receiving  assistance 
from  McDowell,  Jackson  was  sent  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

McDowell  was  thus  forced  to  retire  to  Washington  to  protect  that  city. 
Jackson  then  quickly  rejoined  Lee  and  aided  him  in  the  Seven  Days'  Battles. 
McClellan  was  forced  to  abandon  his  advance  on  Richmond. 

The  authorities  at  Washington,  dissatisfied  with  McClellan,  ordered  him 
to  unite  his  forces  with  those  of  Pope,  who  had  been  given  charge  of  the 
army.  Lee  sent  Jackson  against  Pope's  army,  which  was  defeated  by  him 
at  Cedar  Mountain.  In  the  Second  Battle  of  Manassas  Pope's  army 
was  completely  overthrown.  Lee  seized  the  opportunity  to  invade  the 
North.  McClellan  was  sent  after  him,  and  after  the  battle  of  Sharpsburg,  or 
Antietam,  Lee  withdrew  into  northwest  Virginia  to  recruit  his  army.  The 
Union  army  was  then  given  to  Burnside,  who  endeavored  to  place  his  army 
between  Lee  and  Richmond.  At  Fredericksburg  he  found  himself  confronted 
by  the  Southern  army  and  was  defeated.  He  was  superseded  by  General 
Hooker.  Thus  three  campaigns  against  Richmond  ended  in  failure. 


382  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

In  the  West.  The  Confederates  were  driven  out  of  Kentucky,  and  after 
the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson  by  Grant,  Tennessee  also  was  lost  to  them. 
General  A.  S.  Johnston  was  killed  at  Shiloh  at  the  moment  of  victory  : 
Beauregard,  who  succeeded  him,  retreated  south  to  Corinth.  Followed  by 
the  Union  army  he  abandoned  that  place.  The  Southern  army  was  given 
to  Bragg,  who  invaded  Kentucky,  and  managed  to  elude  Buell  and  escape 
safely  back  to  Chattanooga.  The  Union  army  was  given  to  General 
Rosecrans,  and  on  the  last  day  of  the  year  the  two  armies  met  in  the  bloody 
and  indecisive  battle  of  Murfreesboro. 

Union  forces  gained  possession  of  the  Mississippi  above  Vicksburg,  and 
captured  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  This  was  also  a  year  of  great  naval 
battles.  The  fight  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac  revolutionized 
naval  warfare,  introducing  iron-clad  war-vessels. 

Charleston,  Wilmington,  and  Mobile  were  the  only  seaboard  towns  still 
held  by  the  Confederacy. 

EVENTS  OF  1863. 

7;V    THE    EAST. 

560.  Chancellorsville.  —  In  the  spring  of  1863  General 
Hooker,  —  "Fighting  Joe  Hooker,"  as  he  was  called,  —  with 
more  than  130,000  l  men,  prepared  to  move  against  Lee,  whose 
army  numbered  about  53,000.  The  Federal  commander  sent 
Averill  with  3000  cavalry  to  dislodge  Lee's  pickets  on  the 
Rappahannock,  but  they  were  driven  back  by  800  of  Stuart's 
cavalry  under  Fitzhugh  Lee.  Here  the  gallant  Pelham  fell. 

Hooker's  plan  of  attack  at  Chancellorsville  was  well  con- 
ceived. He  threw  forward  50,000  men  under  General  Sedg- 
wick  against  Lee's  right  as  a  feint,  while  he  massed  the  greater 
part  of  his  army,  over  73,000  men,  on  his  own  right  to  attack 
and  crush  the  Confederate  left.  He  sent  10,000  cavalry  around 
to  the  rear  of  Lee's  army  to  cut  off  his  communications  and  head 
off  retreats. 

Lee  divined  Hooker's  plan  and  out-manoeuvred  him  at  every 
point.  He  at  once  advanced  his  forces  and  threw  Hooker  on 

l  On  April  30  Hooker  had  133,708  "  present,  equipped  for  duty"  ;  Lee  had  53,303 
present  for  duty  at  Chancellorsville. 


GENERAL    JACKSON. 


EVENTS    OF     1863.  383 

the  defensive.  Then,  detaching  Stuart  with  a  brigade  of  cav- 
alry to  protect  his  communications,  and  holding  about  one- 
third  of  his  army  in  Hooker's  front,  he  sent  Stonewall  Jackson 
with  less  than  30,000  men  around  to  strike  his  rear.  Jackson 
moved  swiftly  and  silently  ;  at  6  P.M.,  May  2d,  "his  men  burst 
with  a  cheer  upon  the  startled  enemy,  swept  down  the  line,  and 
captured  the  cannon  before  they  could  be  reversed  to  fire  upon 
them." l  The  Federals  fled  panic-stricken,  and  onward  rushed 
Jackson's  force  so  rapidly  his  ranks  became  broken.  While 
his  men  halted  to  re-form,  Jackson  rode  forward  with  a  small 
party  in  advance  of  his  lines  to  reconnoiter.  Fired  on  by 
some  Federal  infantry,  he  turned  back.  His  party  was  mis- 
taken by  his  own  troops  for  Federal  cavalry  and  fired  upon. 
Several  were  killed,  and  Jackson  was  grievously  wounded,  and 
died  eight  days  later. 

On  Sunday,  May  loth,  he  died.  " '  Order  A.  P.  Hill  to  prepare  for  action,' 
he  cried  in  the  delirium  just  before  death  ;  'pass  the  infantry  to  the  front 
rapidly  ;  tell  Major  Hawks  '  —  he  stopped,  and  then,  with  a  feeling  of  relief, 
he  said, '  Let  us  pass  over  the  river,  and  rest  under  the  shade  of  the  trees.' " l 

Thus  this  heroic  Christian  soldier  passed  over  the  river  and  rested  under 
the  shade  of  the  trees  of  Paradise.  "  If  I  had  had  Stonewall  Jackson,  I 
would  have  won  at  Gettysburg,"  said  General  Lee  afterward.  His  death 
was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the  South.  No  nobler  character  adorns  the 
annals  of  history.  (See  "  Stonewall  Jackson,"  in  Appendix.) 

General  J.  E.  B.  Stuart  succeeded  Jackson  in  command,  and 
on  the  morning  of  May  3d,  with  magnificent  daring,  he  charged 
the  Federals,  who  had  been  reinforced  by  20,000  men  from 
Sedgwick's  corps  and  were  now  strongly  intrenched.  Twice 
repulsed,  Stuart  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  men  and,  as 
he  sang  "  Old  Joe  Hooker,  won't  you  come  out  of  the  wilder- 
ness?" charged  again,  drove  the  Federals  in  disorder  from  their 
breastworks,  and  reunited  the  two  main  divisions  of  Lee's 

1  General  Fitzhugh  Lee,  in  his  admirable  "General  Lee"  (Great  Commander 
Series). 


384  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

army  in  triumph.  Sedgwick,  who  was  thirteen  miles  away 
when  the  battle  began,  moved  up  during  the  night  with  30,000 
men,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  3d  was  fighting  his  way,  in 
spite  of  stubborn  resistance,  to  the  Confederate  rear.  Lee 
stopped  Stuart's  pursuit  of  Hooker  and,  turning  his  attention 
to  Sedgwick,  on  May  4th,  near  nightfall,  defeated  and  drove 
him  back  to  the  river.  Sedgwick  retreated  across  the  river 
during  the  night. 

Hooker  was  saved  by  a  storm  from  further  attack,  and  stole 
away  under  cover  of  night  on  the  5th.  Hooker  lost  at  Chan- 
cellorsville  17,197.  Lee's  loss  was  10,281.  This  superb  vic- 
tory put  Lee  in  the  front  rank  of  military  commanders. 

561.  Lee's  Second  Invasion  of  the  North After  his  bril- 
liant  victories    around    Chancellorsville,    Lee    determined    to 
transfer  the  seat  of  war  to  Northern  soil.     Leaving  General 
A.  P.  Hill  with  a  corps  to  watch  Hooker,  whose  great  army  was 
too  well  intrenched  on  Stafford  Heights  to  be  attacked  without 
danger  of  disaster,  Lee  moved  Northward.     Hooker  withdrew 
Northward  also,  keeping  between  the  Confederates  and  Wash- 
ington, and  Hill  joined  in  the  Northward  movement.     On  the 
march  Stuart  defeated  a  combined  infantry  and  cavalry  force 
under  "Pleasanton  at  Beverly's  Ford,  June  9,  and  Ewell  routed 
Milroy  at  Winchester,  capturing  4000  prisoners,  June   14—15, 
thus    clearing   the    Shenandoah    Valley.       With   his    army  of 
70,000,  Lee  hurried  on,  passing  west  of  the  mountains,  and 
entered    Pennsylvania.      Harrisburg   and    Philadelphia   were 
threatened.     Consternation  spread  throughout  the  North. 

562.  Battle  of  Gettysburg.  —  Just  on  the  eve  of  the  meet- 
ing of   the  two  armies  General    Hooker  was    superseded   by 
General  George  G.  Meade,  who  commanded  the  Union  forces 
in  the  great  battle  which  followed.     Meade  determined,  in  pur- 
suance of    Hooker's  plans,  to  move   through   Maryland  into 
Pennsylvania   and  cause   a  battle  by  threatening  Lee's  com- 


EVENTS    OF    1863.  385 

munications.  Lee,  apprehending  his  purpose,  turned  and  began 
to  concentrate  his  army  at  Gettysburg.  Here,  on  July  i, 
the  great  battle  began;  26,000  Confederates,  two-thirds  of 
EwelPs  corps  and  two-thirds 
of  A.  P.  Hill's,  with  artillery, 
defeated  and  drove  back  with 
heavy  loss  23,000  Federals, 
—  20,000  infantry  under  Rey- 
nolds, who  was  killed  in  the 
engagement,  and  3000  cav- 
alry under  Buford.  The 
Confederates  captured  5000 
prisoners.  Pursuit  of  the 
Federals  was  not  pressed, 
and,  the  main  body  of  their 
army  coming  up  during  the 
night  and  next  morning,  they  intrenched  themselves  on 
Cemetery  Ridge  and  Culp's  Hill  (see  map,  p.  386).  As  the 
Confederate  army  came  up  they  took  position  on  Seminary 
Ridge.  On  the  second  day  of  the  battle  (July  2),  in  spite  of 
unexpected  delay  in  making  the  attack,  the  Confederates  drove 
the  Federals  under  General  Sickles,  Hood's  division  leading 
the  onset,  from  a  strong  position  on  the  right,  and  Ewell 
gained  and  kept  a  foothold  on  Culp's  Hill.  At  one  time 
during  the  day  Round  Top  was  won  and  Little  Round  Top 
almost  captured  by  the  Confederates,  but,  after  furious  fighting, 
they  were  given  up.  The  Federal  loss  on  the  second  day  was 
about  10,000  men.  The  Federals  at  Gettysburg  had  the  advan- 
tage of  superior  numbers,  strong  intrenchments  on  heights  diffi- 
cult of  access,  'and  position  on  interior  lines  (see  map,  p.  386). 
General  Lee,  encouraged  by  the  success  of  the  first  and 
second  days,  determined  to  press  the  attack  on  the  morning  of 
the  third.  Ewell  was  to  assail  the  Federal  right  on  Culp's  Hill, 
while  Longstreet,  aided  by  Hill,  was  to  storm  the  left  center, 


386 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


commanded  by  Hancock,  on  Cemetery  Ridge.  Ewell  attacked 
in  the  morning,  and,  in  spite  of  heroic  efforts,  failed  to  carry 
Gulp's  Hill,  and  was  finally  compelled  to  retire.  After  several 
hours'  delay,  at  i  P.M.,  the  Confederate  artillery  on  the  right 
opened  fire.  The  Federals  responded,  and  for  two  hours  nearly 
300  cannon  "  volleyed  and  thundered."  At  last  the  cannon- 
ading ceased  and  the  long,  magnificent 
line  of  Confederates  moved  forward  and 
stormed  Cemetery  Ridge.  Over  the 
ridge  behind  which  they  had  lain  pro- 
tected during  the  artillery  duel,  down  the 
slope  and  up  the  heights,  three-quarters 
of  a  mile,  less  than  14,000  heroes  in 
gray1  charged  an  army  of  100,000  men. 
At  1100  yards  the  Federal  cannon  reo- 
pened fire,  and  the  shot  cut  windrows 
through  the  advancing  lines.  The  Con- 
federates closed  up  and  pressed  on. 
The  advance  reached  the  Federal  works,  captured  their  guns, 
and  planted  the  Confederate  flag  on  the  outer  stone  wall ;  but 
they  were  not  supported,  and  under  a  terrific  fire  from  the 
front  and  both  flanks  they  went  back,  the  14,000  now  but  7000. 
The  charge  had  failed.  In  heroic  daring  it  has  never  been  sur- 
passed. "  It  is  all  my  fault,"  said  the  great-hearted  Lee,  as, 
after  the  charge,  he  rallied  his  shattered  troops,  thus  taking 
upon  himself  the  shortcomings  of  his  lieutenants.  He  had 
intended  that  Ewell  and  Longstreet  should  attack  at  the  same 
time,  early  in  the  morning,  and  had  expected  Longstreet  to  lead 
his  entire  corps  and  so  much  of  Hill's  corps  as  he  might  need, 
nearly  40,000  men  in  all,  in  the  charge  on  Cemetery  Ridge. 
Ewell,  knowing  nothing  of  the  delay,  attacked  in  the  morning. 

l  "  Pickett's  division  of  5000  men,  with  Wilcox's  brigade  of  1200  on  the  right, 
Heth's  and  Fender's  divisions  together  numbering  7000  on  the  left."  —  Fitz  Lee's 
"  Life  of  R.  E.  Lee,"  pp.  287,  288,  and  297. 


EVENTS    OF    1863.  387 

The  Federals  were  reinforced  and  foiled  him,  and  Longstreet 
attacked  with  a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  forces  under 
his  command  in  the  afternoon.  Lee  was  also  greatly  embar- 
rassed by  the  absence,  until  the  evening  of  the  second  day,  of 
Stuart  and  his  cavalry. 

This  battle  was  the  turning-point  in  the  war.  The  invincible 
army  of  northern  Virginia,  though  not  defeated,  was  checked. 
The  20,000  brave  veterans  who  were  lost  at  Gettysburg  could 
not  be  replaced.  Courage  at  the  North  revived,  and  the  South 
began  to  grow  weary  of  the  unequal  contest. 

Meade  had  about  100,000  men  at  Gettysburg  ;  Lee  about 
70,000.  The  Federal  loss  was  23,003  ;  the  Confederate  loss, 
20,451.  Lee,  after  waiting  a  day  for  an  attack  from  Meade, 
began  to  withdraw  to  the  Potomac  and  Virginia.  He  was  fol- 
lowed —  at  a  safe  distance  —  by  the  Union  army  as  far  as  the 
Rapidan.  Here  the  two  armies  remained  during  the  rest  of  the 
year,  and  this  was  their  position  when  Grant  assumed  command 
the  following  year. 

ON   THE  MISSISSIPPI. 

563.  Fall  of  Vicksburg.  —While  the  important  events,  the 
battle  of  Chancellorsville  and  the  invasion  of  the  North,  were 
occupying  the  attention  of  the  forces  in  the  East,  Grant  made 
several  attempts  to  gain  possession  of  Vicksburg,  all  of  which 
were  unsuccessful. 

Van  Dorn  made  a  daring  raid  upon  Grant's  base  of  supplies 
at  Holly  Springs,  destroyed  his  stores,  and  compelled  him  to 
retreat.  Sherman,  whom  Grant  sent  from  Memphis  with 
32,000  men  to  surprise  Vicksburg,  was  defeated  with  heavy 
loss  at  Chickasaw  Bayou,  five  miles  from  Vicksburg,  by  a  part 
of  Pemberton's  army  under  General  S.  D.  Lee.  Grant  then 
attempted  without  success  to  change  the  course  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  by  digging  a  canal  across  a  great  bend.  This 
would  have  left  Vicksburg  off  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Finally 


388 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


he  hit  upon  a  plan.  By  a  daring  movement  the  gunboats  were 
run  past  the  city,  and  Grant  himself  moved  down  the  west  side 
of  the  river,  and  crossed  the  Mississippi  in  his  gunboats.  He 
pushed  on  to  Jackson,  Mississippi,  thus  preventing  General  J. 

E.  Johnston,  who 
had  general  com- 
mand of  the  depart- 
ment, from  coming 
to  the  aid  of  Vicks- 
burg.  Pemberton, 
who  commanded 
the  Confederate 
army  near  Vicks- 
burg,  was  defeated 
at  Champion  Hills 
and  Big  Black,  and, 
contrary  to  John- 
ston's order,  re- 
treated within  his 
fortifications. 
Grant,  after  two  un- 
successful attacks, 
determined  to  lay 
siege  to  the  place  and  starve  the  people  into  surrender.  After 
seven  weeks'  siege,  the  people  being  almost  famished,  Pember- 
ton, seeing  no  chance  of  success  or  relief,  surrendered  to  General 
Grant.  The  surrender  of  Vicksburg  was  a  heavy  blow  to  the 
Confederacy.  Over  30,000  prisoners  were  captured;  large 
stores  of  firearms  and  ammunition,  so  much  needed  by  the 
South,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Federals ;  the  Mississippi  was 
practically  in  the  hands  of  the  Union  army.  Vicksburg  fell  on 
the  very  day  that  Lee  began  his  retreat  from  Pennsylvania, 
July  4,  the  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Five  days  later  Port  Hudson  surrendered  to  General  Banks's 


EVENTS    OF    1863.  389 

army,  and  the  control  of  the  Mississippi  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Federal  government.  The  Confederacy  was  thus 
divided  by  Federal  armies,  and  assistance  from  beyond  the 
Mississippi  was  cut  off.1 

564.  On  the  Coast  of  Texas.  —  The  efforts  of  the  Union 
forces  to  gain  a  foothold  on  the  soil  of  Texas  were  unsuccess- 
ful until  the  latter  part  of  1863.     Galveston  was  occupied  by 
them    during   the   summer   of    1862,   but   General    Magruder 
resolved  to  recapture  it  for  the  Confederacy.     He  fitted  out 
two  small  steamers  with  bulwarks  of  cotton  and  with  cannon, 
and  sent  them  against  the  Union  fleet  in  the  harbor.     At  the 
same  time  he  landed  a  small  force  of  troops  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  city  January  i,  1863.     The  attack  on  the  Union 
ships  was  begun  immediately.     One  of  the  Union  ships  was 
captured,  another  blown  up,  and  the  remaining  ones  steamed 
away.     The  expedition  was  brilliantly  successful.     After  the 
capture  of  Port  Hudson,  Banks  sent  a  strong  detachment,  con- 
sisting of  four  gunboats  and  transports,  bearing  a  force  esti- 
mated at  from  5000  to  10,000,  to  take  Sabine  Pass  and  invade 
Texas  from  the  south.     The  fort  at  the  Pass  was  defended  by 
forty-two  men  under  Lieutenant  Dick  Bowling.     Soon  two  of 
the  vessels  were  disabled  by  the  fire  from  the  fort,  and  the 
other  two,  with  the  transports,  retired  from  the  siege.     One 
hundred  and  fifty  prisoners  were  taken  by  Lieutenant  Dowling 
and  his  heroic  band.2 

IN   THE    WEST. 

565.  Battle  of  Chickamauga.  —  After  the  battle  of  Mur- 
freesboro,  which  had  begun  on  the  last  day  of  1862,  and  lasted 

1  General  John    Morgan,  with   4000  Confederate  cavalry,  made  a  raid  in  July, 
1863,  through  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  into  Indiana  and  Ohio,  causing  great  excite- 
ment.    He  was  finally  captured  and  imprisoned,  but  escaped  soon  after. 

2  "  The  success  of  the  single  company  which  garrisoned  this  earthwork  is  without 
parallel  in  ancient  or  modern  war."  —  Jefferson  Davis. 


39° 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


through  the  first  two  days  of  1863,  the  armies  had  long  re- 
mained inactive.  The  Confederate  General  Bragg  had  with- 
drawn his  forces,  leaving  the  Union  army  under  Rosecrans  in 
possession  of  Murfreesboro.  For  six  months  nothing  was  done 
on  either  side.  In  June  General  Rosecrans  began  a  forward 
movement,  Bragg  retiring  before  him.  Chattanooga  thus  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Union  army.  Bragg  had  halted  at 
Chickamauga,  in  northwest  Georgia,  twelve  miles  from  Chat- 
tanooga. Here  he  was  reinforced  by  troops  from  Lee's  army, 
under  General  Longstreet,  and  by  Johnston  from  Mississippi. 

On  September  19  an  attack 
was  begun  by  the  Union 
army.  The  result  of  the  first 
day's  battle  was  indecisive. 
On  the  second  day  Rose- 
crans's  forces  were  divided, 
and  his  right  wing  was  com- 
pletely routed  and  retreated 
to  Chattanooga.  The  left 
wing,  under  General  George 
H.  Thomas,  the  "Rock  of 
Chickamauga,"  made  a  mag- 
nificent resistance,  and  saved 
the  Union  army  from  over- 
whelming defeat.  Thomas,  who  now  succeeded  Rosecrans, 
retreated  to  Chattanooga,  and  Bragg  began  a  siege  of  that  place. 

566.  Siege  of  Chattanooga. — Thomas's  army  was  com- 
pletely shut  off  from  outside  communications,  and  his  capture 
seemed  certain.  Bragg  had  his  forces  strongly  posted  in  the 
apparently  impregnable  positions  on  Lookout  Mountain  and 
Missionary  Ridge.  So  sure  was  he  of  his  success  that  he  sent 
part  of  his  forces,  under  Longstreet,  against  Burnside,  who 
was  at  Knoxville.  After  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  Grant  was 


General  Thome 


EVENTS    OF     1863.  391 

put  in  charge  of  all  the  armies  in  the  West.  He  collected 
forces  from  all  the  armies,  and  went  to  the  relief  of  Chatta- 
nooga. General  Hooker  also  brought  forces  from  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac. 

567.  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge.  —  In  order 

to  relieve  Chattanooga,  Grant  determined  •  to  take  the  Con- 
federate positions  on  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge. 
To  take  Bragg's  position,  half  a  mile  up  the  mountain,  "  above 
the  clouds,"  seemed  impossible.  On  November  24  Lookout 
Mountain  was  stormed  ;  on  the  following  day  the  Confederate 
forces  were  driven  from  Missionary  Ridge.  Bragg  retreated 
to  Dalton,  Ga.,  and  the  command  of  the  army  was  turned  over 
to  General  Johnston.  Equally  unsuccessful  was  General  Long- 
street  against  Burnside.  His  attack  on  Knoxville  was  dis- 
astrously repulsed.  General  Grant  hastened  to  Burnside's 
assistance,  and  Longstreet  crossed  into  Virginia  and  rejoined 
Lee. 

568.  Conscription  Act.  —  The  war  had  lasted  so  long  that  it 
became  necessary  to  force  men  into  service  on  both  sides  by  Con- 
scription Acts.    Conscription  was  bitterly  opposed  in  some  parts 
of  the  North  where  opposition  to  the  war  was  strong.     The 
opposition  culminated  in  what  is  known  as  the  Draft  Riot  in 
New  York  City.     This  riot  began  on  July  13,  and  for  three 
days  the   city  was  in  the  hands  of  the  mob.     Their  hatred 
of  negroes  was  manifested  by  attacks  upon  them  and  by  the 
burning  of  an  orphan  asylum  for  colored  children.     Governor 
Seymour  tried  to  pacify  the  mob,  but  was  unable  to  do  so. 
About  100  people  were  killed.     Finally,  the  police,  assisted  by 
troops,  quelled  the  disturbance,  and  order  was  restored.     The 
drafting  of  soldiers  was  a  failure,  and  its  only  success  lay  in 
encouraging  voluntary  enlistment.     The  spirit  of  opposition  to 
the  war  was  so  strong  in  the  North  that  in  August  President 


392  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Lincoln  suspended  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  The  successes 
at  Vicksburg  and  Gettysburg  tended,  however,  to  arrest  dis- 
affection and  create  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  administration 
policy. 

569.  West  Virginia.  —  In  June  of  this  year  West  Virginia 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  (see  §  531). 

570.  Summary  of  Events  of  1863.  —  The  year  1863  was  the  turning 
point  of  the  war.     The  Mississippi  had  completely  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  United  States  by  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson. 

In  the  East,  Hooker  had  commenced  operations  by  trying  to  march 
around  the  west  of  Fredericksburg  and  upon  Richmond.  He  met  disastrous 
defeat  at  Chancellorsville.  Lee  then  invaded  the  North,  reaching  south 
Pennsylvania.  Hooker  followed  him  until  superseded  by  Meade.  The 
latter  stationed  himself  in  the  Southern  general's  path  at  Gettysburg  and 
Lee  could  not  dislodge  him.  This  forced  the  abandonment  of  the  Northern 
invasion. 

In  the  West,  Rosecrans  had  marched  upon  Bragg,  who  thereupon 
evacuated  Chattanooga.  He  was  overtaken,  but  turned  and  defeated 
Rosecrans  at  Chickamauga.  The  Union  army  retreated  to  Chattanooga 
and  was  closely  besieged.  Their  ultimate  surrender  seemed  certain.  Grant, 
who  had  on  July  4  captured  Vicksburg,  came  to  Thomas's  relief.  Sher- 
man and  Hooker  also  brought  assistance.  Bragg  was  defeated  and 
resigned  his  command.  His  army  was  given  to  General  J.  E.  Johnston. 

The  same  day  that  Lee  began  his  retreat  from  Pennsylvania,  Vicksburg 
surrendered  to  Grant.  Thenceforth  the  South  was  wholly  on  the  defensive, 
and  was  gradually  exhausting  her  strength. 

EVENTS  OF  1864. 

571.  Earlier  Movements.  —  The  two  important  campaigns 
of  1864  did  not  begin  till  May.     Up  to  this  time  some  less 
important  movements  must  engage  our  attention. 

Florida  was  invaded  by  a  Union  army  to  reclaim  it  for  the 
Union,  but  the  Federals  were  defeated  at  Ocean  Pond. 

General  Sherman  advanced  from  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  to  cap- 
ture Mobile.  He  tore  up  railroad  and  telegraph  communica- 


EVENTS    OF    1864.  393 

tions  around  Meridian,  and  thus  prevented  any  assistance  to 
the  Southern  army  from  the  west,  and  cut  off  the  Confederate 
army  in  northern  Georgia  from  a  good  basis  of  supplies.  The 
cavalry  which  he  expected  to  assist  him  was  met  and  defeated 
by  General  Forrest.  Sherman,  after  inflicting  considerable 
damage,  returned  to  Vicksburg.  Forrest,  after  driving  the 
Union  cavalry  back  to  Memphis,  continued  his  raid.  He 
attacked  Paducah,  Ky.,k  but  was  unsuccessful.  He  turned 
southward  into  Tennessee  and  captured  Fort  Pillow,  manned 
principally  by  negro  troops.  Most  of  them  were  killed.  The 
Red  River  expedition  under  General  Banks  resulted  in  the  com- 
plete failure  of  the  Federals.  This  expedition  was  to  capture 
Shreveport  and  conquer  the  rest  of  Louisiana.  Banks  was  so 
thoroughly  beaten  by  an  inferior  force  under  General  Dick 
Taylor  at  Mansfield  (Sabine  Cross  Roads)  and  Pleasant  Hill 
that  he  was  glad  to  get  back  to  New  Orleans.  The  gunboats 
which  accompanied  Banks's  army  were  barely  rescued.  Gen- 
eral Kirby  Smith,  who  commanded  the  Trans-Mississippi 
department,  then  moved  across  northwest  Louisiana  and, 
though  checked  at  Jenkins  Ferry,  compelled  the  Federal 
General  Steele  to  retreat  to  Little  Rock. 

572.  Grant  Made  Lieutenant-General.  —  This  was  the 
situation  of  affairs  when  Grant  completed  his  plans  for  the 
campaign  which  was  to  close  the  war.  His  uniform  successes 
in  the  West  during  1863  had  won  the  confidence  of  the  Federal 
authorities.  In  the  spring  of  1864  the  office  of  Lieutenant- 
General  was  revived  and  given  to  Grant.  All  the  Union  forces 
in  America,  amounting  to  nearly  one  million  men,  were  put 
under  his  direction.  The  total  Confederate  forces  numbered 
at  this  time  less  than  one-third  of  the  Union  forces  in  the  field. 
Besides,  the  Confederacy  had  no  means  of  increasing  its  army. 
The  Union,  by  its  bounty  system,  easily  secured  recruits,  draw- 
ing soldiers  even  from  Europe. 


394  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

573.  Grant's  Plan.  —  Two  movements  were  planned  against 
the  Confederacy,  —  the  capture  of  Atlanta  and  the  capture  of 
Richmond.     Grant   left    Sherman   to  march    against  Atlanta, 
while  he  himself  assumed  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
The   troops  on  both  sides  were  principally  massed  into   two 
large  armies.     The  one  under  Sherman,  numbering  100,000 
men,  was  to  oppose  the  Confederates  under  J.  E.  Johnston  with 
70,000  troops.     Grant's  immense  army  of  175,000  soldiers  was 
to  "  hammer  "  away  at  Lee's  army  of  about  one-third  the  size. 
The  movements  were  to  be  simultaneous  and  continuous,  so  as 
to  prevent  Johnston  and  Lee  from  rendering  aid  to  each  other. 
During  the  first  week  of  May  both  Sherman  and  Grant  began 
their  forward  movements.    Let  us  first  follow  Grant's  attack  on 
Richmond. 

IN   THE   EAST. 

574.  Grant's  Plans  against  Richmond.  —  In  his  movement 
against  the  Confederate  capital  Grant  chose  the  direct  overland 
route.     For  the  purpose  he  took  100,000  men,  leaving  a  reserve 
force  of  40,000  upon  which  to  draw.     He  also  organized  two 
minor  expeditions,  —  one  under  General  Butler   and  another 
under  Generals  Crook  and  Sigel.     Butler  was  sent  with  30,000 
troops   to   ascend   the  James    River,    attack    Petersburg,  and 
threaten  Richmond   from  the   south.     Crook   and  Sigel  were 
sent  to  capture  Lynchburg  and  threaten  the  Confederate  capi- 
tal from  the  west.     (See  map,  p.  376.) 

575.  Lee  versus  Grant.  —  Grant  began  his  forward  move- 
ment on  the  5th  of  May,  and  entered  the  Wilderness :  south  of 

i  At  a  critical  moment  in  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  800  Texans  under  General 
Gregg  were  about  to  charge,  when  they  noticed  General  Lee  in  their  van.  "We 
won't  go  unless  you  go  back,"  they  shouted  ;  a  soldier  stepped  forward,  seized  "  Old 
Traveller's"  rein,  and  led  him  to  the  rear.  General  Gregg  came  up  and  urged  Lee 
to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  his  men.  The  great  commander  yielded,  and  the  Texans 
won  the  charge,  with  one-half  their  number  wounded  or  slain. 


EVENTS    OF    1864.  395 

the  Rapidan.  Lee  advanced  to  meet  him,  and  attempted 
during  the  succeeding  month,  with  consummate  skill,  to 
thwart  the  forward  movement  of  Grant.  On  May  5  and  6 
the  bloody  battles  in  the  Wilderness  were  fought.  Grant 
continued  to  force  Lee  slowly  back  by  sending  troops  around 
his  flank.  Beginning  on  the  gth,  two  days'  severe  and  bloody 
encounters  took  place  at  Spottsylvania  Court-house.  Grant 
continued  his  movement  around  Lee's  right  till  the  latter  had  to 
fall  back  to  his  intrenchments  around  Richmond.  He  attacked 
the  Confederates  at  Cold  Harbor,  but  was  severely  beaten,  and 
gave  up  the  attempt  to  storm  Lee's  position.  There  had  been 
continuous  fighting  for  a  month,  and  yet  Grant  had  been  un- 
able to  break  through  Lee's  line.  On  the  contrary,  Lee  could 
not  hope  to  drive  the  Union  army  back,  but  could  only  act 
on  the  defensive.  The  loss  on  both  sides  had  been  terrible. 
During  the  march  from  the  Rapidan  to  the  fortifications 
around  Richmond  the  Union  loss  was  not  less  than  60,000 
men,  equal  in  number  to  Lee's  entire  army.  The  Confederates 
had  also  lost  a  large  number,  a  loss  deeply  felt,  for  it  was 
growing  more  and  more  difficult  to  replace  the  men. 

576.  Butler's  Movements.  —  Butler  had  made  his  way  up 
the  James  River  and  landed  below  Petersburg  on  the  peninsula 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  James  and  the  Appomattox 
Rivers.     Beauregard  erected  fortifications  across  the  peninsula 
from  river  to  river,  and  thus  effectually  "  bottled  up  "  Butler 
at  Bermuda  Hundreds  on  the  peninsula. 

577.  The  Movement  against  Lynchburg  ;  Early  and  Sheri- 
dan in  the  Valley.  —  General  Sigel  was  met  and  defeated  by 
General  Breckinridge  at   Newmarket.1     Sigel's  command  was 
then  given  to  Hunter,  who,  with  Crook's  forces,  was  driven  from 
the  Shenandoah  Valley  by  General  Early.     Lee,  in  the  hope  of 

1  Two  hundred  cadets  from  the  Virginia  Military  Institute  fought  like  veterans 
under  Breckinridge  in  this  battle. 


396  HISTORY   OF   OUR    COUNTRY. 

distracting  Grant's  attention  from  Richmond,  had  sent  General 
Early  through  the  Shenandoah  Valley  into  Maryland  to  threaten 
Washington.  Early,  after  turning  aside  to  save  Lynchburg, 
resumed  his  original  plan  and  marched  northward  into  Mary- 
land. He  was  detained  at  Monocacy,  where  he  met  and  routed 
the  Federal  forces  which  opposed  him.  By  the  time  he  reached 
Washington  he  found  it  too  strong  for  him  to  capture.  He 
captured  provisions  for  the  army  and  began  his  return  to  Lee. 
As  soon  as  Grant  heard  of  the  danger  in  which  Washington 
stood  he  despatched  General  Sheridan  against  General  Early. 
On  the  i gth  of  September  Early  was  defeated  at  Winchester. 
A  month  later  Early  attacked  the  Federal  forces  during 
Sheridan's  absence  and  routed  them.  Sheridan  met  his  flee- 
ing forces,  turned  them,  and  routed  the  Confederates.  Grant 
had  ordered  Sheridan  to  lay  waste  the  beautiful  Shenandoah 
Valley.  No  military  necessity  could  justify  such  wanton  and 
wholesale  destruction  of  private  property  as  Sheridan's  men 
inflicted. 

578.  Grant's   Change   of  Base — Finding  that  he  would 
be  unable  to  take  the  fortifications  around  Richmond,  Grant 
determined  to  change  the  basis  of  his  operations  to  the  James 
River.     He  moved  his  army  to  this  new  position,  thus  threaten- 
ing the  fortifications  around  Petersburg,  which  is  twenty  miles 
south  of  Richmond.     Lee  had  a  continuous  line  of  fortifications 
about  thirty  miles  in  length  surrounding  Petersburg  and  Rich- 
mond.    Lee's  army  still  numbered  about  60,000,  while  Grant 
was  besieging  him  with  over  twice  that  number.     By  pushing 
towards  the  southwest  Grant  forced  Lee  to  lengthen  this  line 
of  fortifications,  and  thus  weaken  his  line  of  defense.      Lee 
lacked  forces  to  man  his  fortifications. 

579.  The  Petersburg  Mine.  — On  July  30,  much  to  the  sur- 
prise of  the  Confederates,  a  portion  of  the  breastworks  around 
Petersburg  was  hurled  into  the  air,  and  a  break  made  in  the 


EVENTS    OF    1864. 


397 


line  of  defense.  Into  this  breach  in  the  fortifications,  making 
a  crater  in  the  ground,  Union  troops  were  poured.  They  but 
rushed  to  a  slaughter-pit,  for  over  4000  lost  their  lives,  and  no 
entrance  into  Petersburg  was  made.  This  attempt  to  blow  up 
the  fortifications  by  exploding  four  tons  of  gunpowder  under 
them  resulted  disastrously  to  the  Federals,  and  did  little  dam- 
age to  the  Confederates. 

Grant  saw  that  he  could  not  take  the  fortifications  by  storm, 
and  he  began  the  siege,  which  lasted  nine  months.  During 
the  remainder  of  the  year  1864  nothing  more  of  importance 
occurred  in  the  East. 

IN  THE  WEST. 

580.  Sherman  and  Johnston.  —  About  the  same  time  that 
Grant  crossed  the  Rapidan  and  began  his  advance  upon  Lee 
Sherman  commenced  his  march  to  Atlanta.  He  was  opposed 
by  Johnston  with  a  force 
little  more  than  half  as 
large  as  his  own.  No 
regular  engagement  took 
place.  Johnston  adopted 
the  "  Fabian  policy "  of 
retreating  till  a  favorable 
moment  for  resistance 
should  occur.  This  policy 
was  a  successful  one,  and 
Sherman  found  his  march 
to  Atlanta  very  difficult. 
He  continually  attempted 
to  pass  around  Johnston's 
army,  thus  compelling  him 
to  fall  back  to  a  new  posi- 
tion. Various  encounters  took  place  between  the  two  armies, 
but  no  set  battle  was  fought.  Johnston  would  select  his  ground 


General  Sherman. 


398  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

and  at  an  opportune  moment  would  strike  the  advancing  hosts. 
He  made  a  stand  at  Resaca.  Again,  on  May  25,  26,  and  27, 
the  armies  encountered  each  other  near  Dallas.  The  most 
severe  encounter  was  at  Kenesaw  Mountain.  Here  Sherman's 
assault  was  severely  repulsed.  Gradually  the  wily  Confederate 
chieftain  fell  back  to  his  fortifications  around  Atlanta.  At 
last  he  determined  to  engage 
the  forces  of  Sherman.  Sher- 
man's loss  had  been  consider- 
ably more  than  Johnston's. 

581.   Hood  in  Command. — 

At  this  critical  point  in  the  cam- 
paign Johnston  was  superseded 
by  General  John  B.  Hood.  In- 
stead of  awaiting  the  attack,  as 
Johnston  had  intended,  Hood 
determined  to  make  an  attack 
himself.  Hood's  forces  were 
inferior  in  numbers  to  Sher- 

General  J.  E.  Johnston. 

man's,  and  his  repeated  assaults 

were  severely  repulsed.  The  Confederates  could  ill  afford  the 
loss  they  suffered.  On  the  last  day  of  August  Hood  was 
forced  to  evacuate  the  city,  and  on  the  2d  of  September  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  General  Sherman.  The  loss  of  Atlanta  was 
a  heavy  blow  to  the  Confederacy.  Here  were  stationed  their 
machine  shops  and  stores  of  war  munitions. 

582.  Hood  in  Tennessee.  —  After  his  evacuation  of  Atlanta 
Hood  moved  northward,  hoping  to  draw  Sherman  after  him. 
The  Union  army  followed  a  short  distance.  Then  a  detachment 
under  General  Thomas,  equal  in  number  to  Hood's  depleted 
army,  was  sent  after  the  Confederates.  These  forces  Hood 
met  at  Franklin  and  drove  from  the  field.  Next  he  besieged 
Thomas  at  Nashville.  On  December  15  and  16  Thomas, 


EVENTS    OF    1864. 


399 


whose  army  now  greatly  outnumbered  Hood's,  came  out  and 
gave  him  battle  and  utterly  defeated  the  Confederate  army. 
One  of  the  two  strong  Confederate  armies  was  broken  up.  It 
never  was  completely  reunited. 

583.  Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea.  —  After  sending  Thomas 
after    Hood,    Sherman    returned   to   Atlanta.     This  place  he 
burned.     He  then  set  out  upon  his  march  to  the  sea.     His 
army,  numbering    60,000  men,  cut   a  swath  through  Georgia 
sixty  miles  wide.     No  efficient  force  lay  before  —  nothing  to 
stop  him  in  his  forward  march.     He  cut  loose  from  all  commu- 
nications with  the  North,  and  for  a  month  nothing  was  heard 
from  him.     His  army  carried  devastation  into  the  rich  country 
hitherto  free  from  soldiery.     The  railroads  were  all  destroyed. 
After  an  eight  days'  siege 

Savannah  was  captured 
on  December  28.  Sher- 
man here  reopened  com- 
munications with  the 
North,  telegraphing  to 
President  Lincoln  that 
he  gave  him  Savannah  as 
a  Christmas  gift. 

584.  On  the  Coast  and 
Sea;  Price's  Raid.  —  In 

the  summer  of  this  year  a 
stop  was  put  to  blockade 
running  in  Mobile.  Ad- 
miral Farragut,  with  his 
fleet,  attacked  the  two  forts  guarding  the  entrance  and  captured 
them.  He  also  captured  the  Confederate  iron-clad,  the  Tennessee. 
The  Confederate  cruiser  Alabama,  after  capturing  sixty-nine 
prizes  and  inflicting  untold  injury  upon  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States,  was  sunk  in  a  combat  off  the  coast  of  France. 


General  Hood. 


4OO  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

The  Alabama  was  in  the  port  of  Cherbourg,  France.  While 
there,  Semmes,  her  captain,  offered  battle  to  the  Federal  steamer 
Kearsarge,  and  in  an  hour  and  a  half  the  Alabama  had  sunk. 

The  Shenandoah,  next  to  the  Alabama,  inflicted  the  greatest 
damage  upon  the  commerce  of  the  North.  Ignorant  of  events 
on  shore,  her  crew  were  engaged  in  capturing  United  States 
whaling  vessels  in  Behring  Sea  three  months  after  the  fall  of 
the  Confederacy. 

The  Confederate  cruiser  Florida  was  illegally  captured  while 
in  a  neutral  port  in  Brazil.  Before  any  steps  were  taken  in 
regard  to  it,  the  vessel  was  sunk  by  a  collision  with  a  United 
States  vessel  in  Hampton  Roads. 

General  Sterling  Price  (August  28  to  December  3),  with  about 
12,000  troops,  moved  rapidly  through  northern  Arkansas  and 
eastern  Missouri,  threatening  St.  Louis  and  Jefferson  City,  and 
returned  through  western  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  the  Indian 
Territory.  He  marched  nearly  1500  miles,  fought  forty-three 
battles  and  skirmishes,  captured  several  thousand  prisoners  and 
large  quantities  of  supplies,  and  destroyed  property  worth 
$10,000,000.  His  own  loss  was  inconsiderable. 

585.  Exchange  of  Prisoners.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  the  Union  authorities  refused  to  exchange  prisoners  be- 
cause to  do  so  would  be  to  recognize  the  Confederacy  as  a 
belligerent  power.  Union  generals  occasionally  consented  to 
an  exchange  with  opposing  commanders  without  express 
authority  from  their  government.  In  the  summer  of  1862, 
however,  a  general  system  of  exchange  was  agreed  upon.  But 
it  was  not  long  before  obstacles  were  presented.  A  Confeder- 
ate soldier  was  found  to  be  worth  more  to  the  South  than  a 
Union  soldier  to  the  North.  Each  Southern  soldier  captured 
lessened  by  one  the  fighting  force  of  the  Confederacy,  because 
the  South  early  enlisted  all  her  able-bodied  men  and  had  no 
source  from  which  to  recruit  her  depleted  armies,  while  the 


EVENTS    OF    1864.  4OI 

greater  population  and  wealth  of  the  North  readily  supplied 
the  places  of  captured  Union  soldiers.  In  1864  the  Federal 
authorities  again  resorted  to  the  policy  of  refusing  to  exchange 
prisoners.1  A  delegation  from  the  Federal  prisoners  at  Ander- 
sonville,  Ga.,  visited  Washington  and  pleaded  in  vain  for  an 
exchange  of  themselves  and  their  fellow  prisoners.2  In  the 
crowding  together  of  large  numbers  of  prisoners,  conditions 
frequently  arose  in  both  Northern  and  Southern  prisons  that 
led  to  suffering,  disease,  and  death.  The  blockade  caused  the 
supply  of  medicines  in  the  South  to  become  greatly  reduced. 
When  the  Confederate  authorities  proposed  to  buy  medicines 
of  the  North,  to  be  used  exclusively  for  Union  prisoners,  and 
even  to  be  dispensed  by  Union  surgeons,  the  request  was 
ignored  by  the  Federal  government. 

The  total  number  of  Confederate  prisoners  in  Northern 
prisons  has  been  estimated  at  220,000  ;  the  Union  prisoners 
in  Southern  prisons,  27o,ooo.3  The  Confederates  who  died  in 
Northern  prisons  numbered  26,246;  Federals  who  died  in 
Southern  prisons,  22,576.* 

586.   Presidential  Campaign  of  1864;  Nevada  admitted. — 

Much  dissatisfaction  had  arisen  in  the  North  over  the  long- 
continued  war.  Many  were  weary  of  the  struggle  and  desired 
peace.  The  Democratic  Convention  declared  openly  its  hostility 
to  the  war,  pronouncing  it  a  failure.  They  put  in  nomination 

1  General  Grant,  in  a  despatch  to  General  Butler  dated  August  18,  1864,  said : 
"  It  is  hard  on  our  men  held  in  Southern  prisons  not  to  exchange  them,  but  it  is 
humanity  to  those  left  in  the  ranks  to  fight  our  battles.     Every  man  released  on 
parole  or  otherwise  becomes  an  active  soldier  against  us  at  once  either  directly  or  in- 
directly.    If  we  commence  a  system  of  exchange  which  liberates  all  prisoners  taken, 
we  will  have  to  fight  on  until  the  whole  South  is  exterminated.    If  we  hold  those 
caught,  they  amount  to  no  more  than  dead  men.    At  this  particular  time,  to  release 
all  rebel  prisoners  North  would  insure  Sherman's  defeat,  and  would  compromise  our 
safety  here." 

2  Davis's  "  Rise  and  Fall,"  Vol.  II,  p.  598. 

8  Official  Report  U.  S.  Surgeon-General  Barnes. 
*  Report  of  U.  S.  Sec.  of  War  Stanton. 


4O2  HISTORY   OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

for  the  presidency  General  McClellan,  who  secured  a  large 
popular  vote.     Opportune  Union  victories  gave  renewed  confi- 
dence in  Lincoln,  who  was  reelected.     Andrew  Johnson,  the 
war  governor  of  Tennessee,  was  elected  vice-president. 
Nevada  was  admitted  as  a  state  in  March,  1864. 

587.  Summary  of  Events  of  1864.  The  campaign  had  been  opened 
in  May  by  forward  movements  in  the  East  under  Grant  and  in  the  West 
under  Sherman.  In  his  advance  against  Richmond,  Grant  had  fought  the 
battles  of  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania,  and  Cold  Harbor.  Lee  was 
finally  driven  inside  his  fortifications,  and  the  siege  of  Petersburg  began. 

In  the  West  Sherman  had  been  skillfully  opposed  by  Johnston,  who  was 
gradually  forced  to  fall  back  to  Atlanta.  Here  Johnston  was  superseded 
by  Hood.  Atlanta  was  captured,  and  Hood  moved  into  Tennessee.  He 
was  followed  by  General  Thomas,  and  his  army  was  almost  totally  destroyed 
at  Nashville.  Sherman  continued  his  march  southward,  and  just  before 
Christmas  had  reached  Savannah.  Nevada  admitted. 


CONCLUSION  OF  THE  WAR  (1865). 

588.  Sherman's    March    through    the    Carolinas.  —  In 
February,  1865,  Sherman  left  Savannah,  and  began  his  march 
northward  to  join  Grant.     He  had  been  ordered  to  transport 
his  army  by  sea,  but,  finding  this  impracticable,  he  marched 
overland    through    the    state   of    South    Carolina,   which    was 
looked  upon  in  the  North  as  the  "hotbed  of  the  rebellion." 
Much   destruction  marked  his   path.     The   beautiful   city  of 
Columbia,  the   capital  of  the  state,  was  burned  while   Sher- 
man's army  was  occupying  it.     Unopposed  by  any  obstacle 
save  such  as  nature  offered,  Sherman  continued  his  onward 
movement,  clearly  demonstrating  the  fact  that  the  Confederacy 
was  but  a  shell  which  he  had  penetrated. 

589.  Johnston  Recalled.  —  Meanwhile  Johnston  had  been 
recalled,  and,  gathering  what  scattered  remnants  of  the  old 
army  he  could  find,  with  the  garrisons  of  Charleston  and  other 
coast  cities  which  had  been  evacuated  at  Sherman's  approach, 


CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR.  403 

he  placed  himself  in  front  of  Sherman  with  a  force  of  about 
20,000  men.  Sherman  was  vigorously  and  almost  successfully 
attacked  at  Bentonville,  N.C.,  on  March  19.  Sherman  was 
joined  by  Terry  and  Schofield  at  Goldsboro  four  days  later, 
and  his  forces  now  outnumbered  Johnston's  five  to  one. 
Sherman  moved  toward  Raleigh,  and  Johnston  withdrew  in 
the  same  direction,  both  armies  awaiting  the  result  in  Virginia. 

590.  Sheridan's  Raid.  —  General  Sheridan,  with  his  cavalry, 
moved  southward  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  carrying  destruc- 
tion with  him.     His  object  was  to  cut  off  Lee's  base  of  sup- 
plies from  the  West  and  South.     He  destroyed  part  of  the 
railroad  between  Lynchburg   and   Richmond,   and   made  the 
James  River   canal  useless,   thus   cutting   off    supplies  from 
Richmond.     He  then  captured  Five  Forks,  twelve  miles  south- 
west from  Petersburg,  and  thus  intercepted  the  supplies  for 
that  point,  afterwards  rejoining  Grant  around  Richmond. 

591.  Evacuation  of  Richmond  and  Surrender  of  Lee. — 

Grant  had  been  gradually  extending  his  army  around  Rich- 
mond, thereby  lengthening  and  at  the  same  time  weakening 
Lee's  line  of  defense.  By  sudden  attacks  Lee  gained  some 
unimportant  successes.  At  last  the  line  was  lengthened  too 
much,  and  broke  in  twain.  Grant,  with  his  200,000  men,  was 
able  to  force  the  45,000  men  under  Lee  to  leave  their  position. 
On  the  last  day  of  March  the  assault  upon  the  Confederate 
line  began.  For  three  days  the  attacks  were  nobly  met,  and 
then  Lee,  realizing  that  he  could  not  resist  another  attack,  on 
April  2  evacuated  his  position  and  began  his  retreat  toward  the 
southwest.  Grant  pursued  vigorously,  giving  the  Confederates 
no  time  for  rest.  The  army  was  famished.  Lee's  forward 
movement  was  stopped  at  Appomattox  Court  House  by  Union 
forces  under  Sheridan.  Grant  was  behind  him.  Surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  overwhelming  forces,  Lee  surrendered,  April  9, 
his  less  than  10,000  muskets.  Liberal  terms  were  granted,  the 


404  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

soldiers  being  permitted  to  return  home  after  giving  their  oath 
not  to  enlist  again  in  the  war  till  exchanged. 

592.  Assassination  of  President  Lincoln.  —  Five  days  after 
Lee's  surrender  the  world  was  shocked  by  the  assassination  of 
President  Lincoln.     He  was  shot  in  his  box  at  Ford's  Theater 
in  Washington,  on  the  evening  of  April  14,  by  John  Wilkes 
Booth,   an   actor.      Booth    seems   to    have   thought   that    the 
death  of  the  president  and  members  of  his  cabinet  (Secretary 
Seward  was  stabbed,  but  not  fatally,  in  his  own  house  on  the 
same  evening)  would  paralyze  the  government  and  give  the 
South  another  chance.      He  crept  up  behind  the  president, 
who  was  in  the  midst  of  his  family  and  friends,  and  shot  him 
through  the  head.     He  then  leaped  upon  the  stage,  exclaiming 
"  Sic  semper  tyrannis  !  "  (Thus  ever  to  tyrants).    Although  the 
assassin  fell  and  broke  a  leg,  he  escaped  from  the  theater  and 
fled  into  Virginia,  where  he  was  shortly  afterward  overtaken 
and,  as  he  refused  to  surrender,  put  to  death.     The  assassina- 
tion was  a  part  of  a  conspiracy  which  was  ferreted  out.     The 
conspirators  were  captured,  tried,  and  convicted,  four  to  be 
hanged,  and  four  to  serve  long  terms  of  imprisonment.     Booth 
was  probably  insane.    His  crime  was  viewed  with  horror  in  the 
South  as  well  as  in  the  North.     The  tragic  death  of  Lincoln 
was  a  terrible  misfortune  to  the  whole  country,  and  most  of  all 
to  the  South.    Vice-President  Johnson  took  the  oath  of  office  as 
president  within  three  hours  after  Lincoln  had  passed  away. 

593.  Surrender  of  Johnston;  Close  of  the  War.  —  After 
Lee's  surrender,  Johnston  and  Sherman  agreed  upon  terms  of 
surrender  for  the  former's  army.     These  terms  were  rejected 
by  President   Johnson    and  his   cabinet   as  too  liberal.       No 
doubt  this  was  due  to  the  North's  being  enraged  at  the  assassi- 
nation of  President  Lincoln.     Johnston  surrendered  to  Sher- 
man, April  26,  upon  the  same  terms  as  had  been  accorded  to 
Lee.     The  surrender  of  other  Southern  forces  soon  followed. 


CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR.  405 

President  Davis  was  captured  in  Georgia  on  the  loth  of 
May.  On  the  1 2th  of  May  the  Confederates  won  the  last  battle 
of  the  war  at  Boco  Chico,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  in  Texas.  General 
Kirby  Smith  surrendered  the  Confederate  forces  west  of  the 
Mississippi  on  the  26th  of  May. 

The  greatest  war  of  history  was  at  an  end.  The  South  had 
worn  herself  out  fighting  against  overwhelming  odds,  both  in 
numbers  and  material  resources.  The  courage  and  endurance 
of  the  Southern  soldier  have  never  been  surpassed.  Of  the 
200  battles  of  the  war,  he  won  120.  His  deeds  form  fitting 
themes  for  song  and  story. 

594.  Robert  E.  Lee.  —  As  the  clouds  of  passion  and  preju- 
dice clear  away  from  the  war  between  the  states,  Robert  E. 
Lee  is  seen  to  have  been  its  greatest  figure.  Sprung  from  a 
historic  ancestry  —  he  was  the  son  of  "Light-horse  Harry" 
Lee  (§  313) — and  born  (January  19,  1807)  in  Westmoreland 
County,  Virginia,  near  the  birthplace  of  Washington,  he  inher- 
ited the  heroic  spirit  of  Revolutionary  sires.  His  boyhood  was 
as  simple  and  noble  as  Washington's.  At  West  Point,  where 
he  was  graduated  in  1829,  he  was  distinguished  for  both  high 
scholarship  and  perfect  deportment.  Assigned  as  lieutenant 
to  a  corps  of  engineers  of  the  United  States  army,  he  studied 
his  profession  intensely  and  was  noted  for  his  faultless  habits. 
On  June  30,  1831,  he  was  married  to  Mary  Custis,  daughter  of 
G.  W.  P.  Custis,  Washington's  adopted  son.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  member  of  the  corps  of  engineers  at  Hampton 
Roads,  Washington,  St.  Louis,  and  New  York.  General  Scott 
took  Lee  with  him  to  Mexico  in  1846,  placed  him  on  his  staff, 
and  made  him  his  military  adviser.  After  the  war  Captain 
Lee  was  assigned  to  construct  works  for  the  defense  of  Balti- 
more Harbor,  whence  he  was  called  in  1852  to  the  superin- 
tendency  of  the  West  Point  Military  Academy.  This  position 
he  filled  for  three  years  with  great  ability.  When,  in  1855, 
Congress  added  two  regiments  of  cavalry  to  the  regular  army, 


4O6  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

the  secretary  of  war,  Mr.  Jefferson  Davis,  assigned  Captain 
Lee  to  the  lieutenant-colonelcy  of  one  of  these  regiments, 
Albert  Sidney  Johnston  being  its  colonel.  Lee  was  sent  first 
to  Louisville,  then  to  Jefferson  Barracks,  Mo.,  and  in  1856  to 
Texas.  From  this  time  to  1861  he  was  stationed  on  the  Texas 
frontier.  While  at  home  on  a  furlough  he  was  directed  by  the 
secretary  of  war  to  capture  John  Brown  (§  504).  In  February, 
1861,  he  was  summoned  to  Washington.  Here  he  was  offered 
the  command  of  the  army  which  was  to  be  brought  into  the 
field  by  the  United  States.  He  declined  because,  as  he  wrote 
afterward,  "  though  opposed  to  secession  and  deprecating  a 
war,  I  could  take  no  part  in  the  invasion  of  the  Southern 
states."  He  sent  his  resignation  as  an  officer  in  the  United 
States  army  to  the  secretary  of  war  on  the  2oth  of  April,  and 
at  the  same  time  wrote  to  his  friend,  General  Scott,  the 
letter  to  which  reference  is  made  elsewhere.  Lee's  love  of  the 
Union,  which  he  had  served  so  long  and  so  well,  and  his 
unfaltering  loyalty  to  Virginia,  made  this  act  a  struggle  as 
great  as  Chancellorsville  or  Gettysburg.  Virginia  at  once 
offered  him  the  position  of  commander-in-chief  of  her  forces. 
His  brief  speech  of  acceptance  is  a  model  of  manly  modesty 
and  eloquence.  He  declined  the  command  of  the  mighty 
armies  of  the  Union  to  accept  that  of  the  forces  of  his 
beloved  state.  When  the  Confederate  government  was  trans- 
ferred from  Montgomery  to  Richmond,  General  Lee  became 
the  military  adviser  of*  President  Davis.  The  history  of  the 
next  four  years  is  largely  a  history  of  Lee.  He  was  a  great 
organizer.  His  genius  as  a  strategist  was  unrivaled.  Wise 
and  far-sighted  in  planning,  he  was  terrible  in  execution. 
Serene  in  victory,  he  was  undaunted  in  defeat.  His  men  loved 
him  with  a  tenderness  and  devotion  stronger  than  death.  His 
greatness  was  not  dimmed  by  disaster.  After  the  war  was 
over,  he  urged  his  people  to  accept  its  results  in  good  faith, 
and  to  look  to  the  future  rather  than  to  the  past.  Asked  to 


CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR.  4O/ 

lend  the  use  of  his  name  to  a  great  insurance  enterprise  to 
which  he  could  not  give  his  personal  attention,  he  declined. 
The  name  of  Lee,  poor  though  he  was,  could  not  be  bought 
for  fifty  thousand  dollars  a  year.  In  1865  he  accepted 
the  presidency  of  Washington  College,  and  devoted  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  to  the  great  work  of  training  the  young 
men  of  the  South  for  the  responsibilities  of  the  future.  In  this 
noble  institution,  now  Washington  and  Lee  University,  his 
name  is  forever  linked  with  that  of  Washington.  His  death 
occurred  'at  his  home  in  Lexington  on  the  i2th  of  October, 
1870.  A  sincere  Christian,  a  gentleman  without  reproach, 
a  great  general,  patriot  of  the  highest  type,  Robert  E.  Lee 
holds  a  secure  place  among  the  world's  heroes. 

THE    WAR  ENDED. 

595.  Numbers  Engaged. — On  July  i,  1861,  the  Union 
army  numbered  186,000  men.  Six  months  later  it  had  in- 
creased to  nearly  600,000.  The  increase  continued  until  more 
than  a  million  men  were  under  arms  at  a  time.  The  entire 
number  of  men  enrolled  in  the  Union  armies  during  the  four 
years  was  2,850,000. 

The  Confederates  never  had  so  many  troops  in  the  field  as 
the  Federals,  and  toward  the  close  of  the  war  the  number 
became  very  much  smaller.  The  numbers  were  about  as  10 
to  9  in  1861  ;  in  1862  they  were  as  10  to  6;  in  1863,  as  10  to 
5  ;  in  1864,  as  10  to  3  ;  and  in  January,  1865,  as  10  to  2.  The 
entire  white  male  population  of  the  South  in  1860  was  about 
2,800,000.  Of  this  number  probably  not  more  than  one  in 
four  would  make  an  able-bodied  soldier.  The  complete  en- 
rollment of  the  Confederate  army  is  not  known.  The  largest 
number  of  Confederates  in  the  field  at  any  time  during  the 
war  was  about  45o,ooo.1 

1  Jameson's  Dictionary  of  United  States  History,  "  Army."  President  Davis, 
Vice-President  Stephens,  and  Adjutant-General  S.  Cooper  estimated  the  Confeder- 
ate enrollment  as  not  more  than  600,000. 


408  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

596.  Losses:  in  Men. — The  Union  armies  lost  by  deaths 
during  the  war  about  360,000  men.     The  loss  of  the  Confed- 
erates is  not  known,  but  it  may  have  amounted  to  a  quarter  of 
a   million.     Many  more   on  both   sides  incurred   wounds   or 
diseases  which  either  killed  them  afterward  or  disabled  them 
for  life.     It  is  probable  that  the  war  cost  the  country  three- 
quarters  of  a  million  of  its  best  men. 

597.  Losses:  in  Money. — The  money  cost  of  the  war  is 

estimated  by  careful  students  at  $9,000,000,000.  The  national 
debt  in  August,  1865,  reached  the  enormous  sum  of  $2,845,- 
907,626.26.  It  has  not  been  paid  off  yet,  —  thirty-three  years 
after  the  close  of  the  contest.  The  amount  paid  for  pensions  to 
Union  soldiers  seems  likely  to  reach  $2,000,000,000.  Besides 
what  the  general  government  spent,  the  states  and  municipali- 
ties poured  out  freely  vast  sums  to  help  preserve  the  Union. 

But  the  South  suffered  most.  The  abolition  of  slavery 
meant,  to  the  white  people  of  the  South,  the  destruction  of 
$2,000,000,000  of  their  property.  The  property  destroyed  by 
both  armies  was  enormous.  Thousands  of  homes  were  burned, 
cities  were  destroyed,  railroads  were  torn  up,  and  all  the  notes 
and  bonds  issued  by  the  states  of  the  Confederacy,  as  well  as 
by  the  Confederate  government,  were  made  worthless  by  the 
failure  of  the  Confederacy  (see  Const.,  Amendment  XIV). 

598.  The  Armies  Disbanded.  —  The   Union  armies  were 
reviewed  at  Washington  by  the  president  in  May,  and  nearly  a 
million  men  were  paid  off  and  sent  to  their  homes.     The  regu- 
lar army  was  reduced  to  50,000  men.     The  soldiers,  proud  of 
success,  turned  to  the  pursuits  of  peace,  rinding  their  country 
prospering  as  never  before. 

The  case  was  far  different  with  the  Southern  soldiers. 
"  Ragged,  half-starved,  heavy-hearted,"  they  went  back  to 
begin  anew  and  build  up  a  new  South.  The  following 
description  of  the  South's  desolation  at  the  close  of  the  war 
between  the  states  is  not  overdrawn :  — 


CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR.  409 

"Think  of  him  as  ragged,  half-starved,  heavy-hearted,  enfeebled 
by  want  and  wounds  ;  having  fought  to  exhaustion,  he  surrenders 
his  gun,  wrings  the  hands  of  his  comrades  in  silence,  and,  lifting  his 
tear-stained  and  pallid  face  for  the  last  time  to  the  graves  that  dot 
the  old  Virginia  hills,  pulls  his  gray  cap  over  his  brow  and  begins 
the  slow  and  painful  journey.  What  does  he  find  —  let  me  ask  you 
who  went  to  your  homes  eager  to  find,  in  the  welcome  you  had  justly 
earned,  full  payment  for  four  years'  sacrifice  —  what  does  he  find 
when,  having  followed  the  battle-stained  cross  against  overwhelming 
odds,  dreading  death  not  half  so  much  as  surrender,  he  reaches  the 
home  he  left  so  prosperous  and  beautiful  ?  He  finds  his  house  in 
ruins,  his  farm  devastated,  his  slaves  free,  his  stock  killed,  his  barn 
empty,  his  trade  destroyed,  his  money  worthless  ;  his  social  system, 
feudal  in  its  magnificence,  swept  away  ;  his  people  without  law  or 
legal  status  ;  his  comrades  slain,  and  the  burdens  of  others  heavy  on 
his  shoulders.  Crushed  by  defeat,  his  very  traditions  gone  ;  without 
money,  credit,  employment,  material  training  ;  and,  besides  all  this, 
confronted  with  the  gravest  problem  that  ever  met  human  intelli- 
gence, —  the  establishing  of  a  status  for  the  vast  body  of  his  liber- 
ated slaves.  What  does  he  do,  —  this  hero  in  gray  with  a  heart  of 
gold?  Does  he  sit  down  in  sullenness  and  despair?  Not  for  a  day. 
Surely  God,  who  had  stripped  him  of  his  prosperity,  inspired  him  in 
his  adversity.  As  ruin  was  never  before  so  overwhelming,  never 
was  restoration  swifter.  The  soldier  stepped  from  the  trenches  into 
the  furrow  ;  horses  that  had  faced  Federal  guns  marched  before  the 
plow,  and  fields  that  ran  red  with  human  blood  in  April  were  green 
with  the  harvest  in  June  ;  women  reared  in  luxury  cut  up  their 
dresses  and  made  breeches  for  their  husbands,  and,  with  a  patience 
and  heroism  that  fit  women  always  as  a  garment,  gave  their  hands  to 
work.  There  was  little  bitterness  in  all  this.  Cheerfulness  and  frank- 
ness prevailed."  —  H.  W.  GRADY,  before  the  New  England  Society. 

599.  Slavery  Abolished. — The  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution,  abolishing  slavery,  proposed  by  Congress  in  Febru- 
ary, 1865,  was  declared  adopted  in  December  of  the  same  year. 

600.  Finances  of  the  Federal  Government.  —  The  Morrill 
Tariff,  passed  in  1860,  before  the  war  was  certain,  furnished  a 


4IO  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

new  basis  of  taxation.  It  changed  the  ad  valorem  duties  of 
the  Walker  Tariff  (1856)  to  specific,  called  for  higher  duties, 
and  laid  a  duty  on  wool. 

Paper  Money  —  National  Banks.  —  Congress  also  issued 
paper  money,  and  made  it  legal  tender  for  all  debts.  In  1863 
there  were  over  $450,000,000  of  such  money  outstanding. 
Gold  rose  until  1865,  when  it  reached  285.  Bonds  were  issued 
for  immense  sums.  One  of  the  means  employed  to  float  these 
bonds  was  the  present  national  banking  system,  the  first  steps 
of  which  were  taken  in  1863.  To  start  a  national  bank  it  is 
necessary  for  the  organizers  to  buy  and  deposit  with  the 
United  States  Treasurer  a  certain  amount  of  government 
bonds  to  protect  circulation.  The  bank  is  then  allowed  to 
issue  bank  notes  equal  to  90  per  cent  of  the  amount  of 
bonds  purchased.  In  order  to  encourage  this  banking  system, 
a  tax  of  10  per  cent  was  levied  upon  the  circulation  of  state 
banks. 

Internal  Revenue.  —  The  Internal  Revenue  Act,  a  system  of 
taxation  discarded  by  Jefferson,  was  brought  again  into  use  in 
1863.  Although  several  articles  taxed  at  that  time  are  no 
longer  subject  to  taxation,  the  system  is  still  in  existence, 
deriving  most  of  its  revenue,  however,  from  its  tax  on  liquors 
and  tobacco. 

60 1.  Finances  of  the  Confederacy.  —  The  South  had  to 
raise  its  money  by  the  sale  of  bonds  which  bore  a  ruinous  rate 
of  interest,  and  by  the  issue  of  paper  money  redeemable  six 
months  after  the  close  of  the  war.  The  blockade  prevented 
the  sale  of  products  of  Southern  plantations,  and  this  took 
away  the  basis  of  credit.  After  a  time  bonds  were  hard  to  sell, 
and  the  amount  of  paper  money  increased  until  it  had  very 
little  value. 

Confederate  Soldiers  from  Texas.  —  Texas  furnished  the 
Confederate  armies  forty-four  general  officers,  including  one 
general,  one  lieutenant-general,  three  major-generals,  and 


CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR.  411 

thirty-nine  brigadier-generals.  Only  two  states  (Virginia  and 
Georgia)  exceeded  this  total.  The  Texas  officers  in  the  Con- 
federate service  were  as  follows  (compiled  from  the  official 
roster  in  Confederate  Soldiers  in  the  Civil  War,  published  by 
Courier-Journal  Company) : 

General. —  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  (see  Appendix  B). 

Lieutenant- General.  —  John  B.  Hood  (see  Appendix  B). 

Major-Generals .  —  J.  A.  Wharton  (cavalry  officer,  rendered 
gallant  service  at  Shiloh,  in  the  operations  in  Tennessee,  and 
in  the  Red  River  campaign),  S.  B.  Maxey  (commanded  a  force 
in  the  Indian  Territory,  later  participated  in  the  Vicksburg  and 
Red  River  campaigns,  after  the  war  was  United  States  senator), 
Thomas  L.  Rosser  (conspicuous  for  his  services  as  commander 
of  the  Virginia  cavalry  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah). 

Brigadier-Generals.  —  (Space  forbids  a  recital  of  the  military 
careers  of  all  these  officers.  To  record  the  gallant  achieve- 
ments of  only  a  few  would  be  invidious.  For  such  information 
the  interested  student  is  referred  to  detailed  histories  of  the 
war.)  F.  C.  Armstrong,  P.  C.  Archer,  A.  P.  Bagby,  J.  R. 
Baylor,  H.  P.  Bee,  X.  B.  DeBray,  M.  D.  Ector,  R.  M.  Gano, 
G.  H.  Granbury  (killed  at  Franklin,  Tenn.),  John  Gregg  (killed 
at  Fort  Harrison,  near  Richmond),  Tom  Green  (killed  at 
Blair's  Landing,  Red  River  campaign),  Elkanah  Greer,  W.  P. 
Hardeman,  J.  E.  Harrison,  Thomas  Harrison,  Richard  Harri- 
son, Joseph  L.  Hogg,  A.  R.  Johnson,  W.  H.  King,  W.  P.  Lane, 
H.  P.  Mabry,  Ben  McCulloch  (killed  at  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.),  H. 
E.  McCulloch,  J.  C.  Moore,  A.  Nelson,  W.  H.  Parsons,  C.  W. 
Phifer,  Horace  Randall  (killed  at  Jenkins  Saline,  Ark.),  J.  B. 
Robertson,  F.  H.  Robertson,  E.  S.  C.  Robertson,  L.  S.  Ross 
(afterward  governor  of  Texas),  William  Steele,  W.  R.  Scurry, 
Richard  Waterhouse,  T.  N.  Waul,  J.  W.  Whitfield,  Louis 
Wigfall,  W.  H.  Young. 

Private  Soldiers.  —  At  the  close  of  1863  Governor  Lubbock 
of  Texas  estimated  that  there  were  90,000  Texas  troops  enrolled 
in  the  Confederate  service.  As  the  resources  of  the  state  at 


412  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

that  time  had  been  drained  to  the  utmost,  it  is  probable  that 
these  numbers  were  never  materially  increased.  The  achieve- 
ments of  these  Texas  soldiers  form  some  of  the  brightest  pages 
in  military  history.  On  their  native  soil,  their  heroism  at  Gal- 
veston  and  Sabine  Pass  accomplished  the  most  brilliant  suc- 
cesses of  the  war.  In  their  sister  states  of  Missouri,  Arkansas, 
and  Louisiana,  the  lifeblood  of  their  brave  officers  and  gallant 
men  freely  spilled  at  Wilson's  Creek,  Pea  Ridge,  Mansfield,  and 
on  a  hundred  minor  fields,  attested  their  devotion  to  the  cause 
for  which  they  fought.  Beyond  the  Mississippi,  in  the  desperate 
conflicts  from  Shiloh  and  Corinth  to  Chickamauga  and  Atlanta, 
their  dauntless  courage  was  the  pride  of  their  fellow-soldiers, 
the  admiration  of  their  foes.  And  with  Lee's  veterans  beyond 
the  Alleghanies,  far  from  their  Texas  homes  and  firesides,  from 
the  Peninsula  to  Gettysburg,  and  from  the  Wilderness  to 
Appomattox,  they  marched  to  certain  death  with  a  sublime 
courage  and  a  reckless  daring  that  called  forth  the  eulogy  of 
their  great  commander,  and  gained  for  themselves  and  Texas 
imperishable  renown. 

602.  Summary  of  Last  Year  of  the  War.  —  Sherman,  leaving  Savannah, 
marched  northward  to  join  Grant,  leaving  destruction  in  his  path.     In 
North  Carolina  he  was  ineffectually  opposed  by  an  army  under  Joseph  E. 
Johnston.    The  Shenandoah  Valley  in  Virginia  was  laid  waste  by  Sheridan's 
troops.     Lee  was  compelled  by  Grant's  superior  forces  to  evacuate  Peters- 
burg and  Richmond.     On  April  9,  at  Appomattox  Court   House,  a  few 
miles  southwest  of  Richmond,  Lee  accepted  terms  of  surrender  for  his 
army.     On  April  14  President  Lincoln  was  assassinated  in  a  Washington 
theater,  and  Vice-President  Johnson  became  President.     Within  the  next 
two  months  the  armies  of  Joseph   E.  Johnston  and   all  other   Southern 
forces  surrendered.     Probably  three  and  a  half  million  men  were  enrolled 
in  the  armies  on  both  sides  during  the  war,  one-fifth  of  these  in  Southern 
armies.     The  war  cost  the  lives  of  three-quarters  of  a  million  men,  and 
nine  billion  dollars  in  money  and  property.    As  results  of  the  war,  the  1 5th 
amendment  abolishing  slavery  was  adopted,  and  the  North  and  South  were 
in  the  end  more  closely  united. 

603.  Thought  Questions.  —  What  did  the  South  consider  the  first  act 
of  the  war  ?     What  did  the  North  consider  the  first  act  ?     Why  did  South 


CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR. 


413 


Carolina  insist  on  the  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter?  Why  did  President 
Lincoln  refuse  to  agree  to  its  surrender  ?  What  principle  was  the  South 
fighting  for  ?  The  North  ?  Was  there  any  advantage  to  the  South  in  the 
fact  that  the  war  was  waged  in  her  territory  ?  What  disadvantages  resulted 
.to  her  from  this  ?  Copy  and  fill  out  the  following  table : 


1861. 

1862. 

1863. 

t864  and  1865. 

UNION  VICTORIES. 
CONFEDERATE  VICTORIES. 

In  what  year  was  the  South  most  successful  ?  What  was  the  turning- 
point  of  the  war?  What  results  might  have  followed  if  McDowell  had 
defeated  the  Southern  army  at  Bull  Run?  What  injury  to  the  South  did 
the  slaves  have  it  in  their  power  to  inflict  during  the  war?  What  does  their 
conduct  prove  ?  What  were  the  causes  of  the  greater  suffering  in  the  South 
than  in  the  North  ?  What  do  you  consider  the  two  most  important  battles 
fought  east  of  the  Alleghanies  ?  West  of  the  Alleghanies  ?  Who,  in  your 
opinion,  were  the  two  ablest  Southern  generals  ?  The  two  ablest  Northern 
generals?  Enumerate  the  evils  wrought  by  the  war.  The  benefits  that 
resulted  from  it. 


|t 

El 


529.  Fort  Sumter. 


53°.  S31- 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (WAR  BETWEEN  THE  STATES). 

f  526.  The  New  President. 

527.  Beginning  of  the  Administra-  f  Condition  of  the  country. 

tion.  \  The  president's  position. 

528.  The  Question  as  to   f  Alternative  presented. 

Fort  Sumter.        \  Commissioners  at  Washington. 
Action  of  U.  S.  government. 
Capture  of  the  fort. 

r  In  the  North. 
Effect  of  the  Fall  of  Sumter.  -j   In  the  South. 

[_  In  the  border  states. 

532.  Confidence  North  and  South :  Elements  of  strength. 

C  East  of  the  Alleghanies. 

533.  The  South's  Line  of  Defense.  J  West  of  the  Alleghanies. 

On  the  Mississippi. 
I  The  coast  line. 

534.  Northern  Plan  of  Operations :  Plans  against  the  South's  defenses. 

Minor  engagements. 
Union  success. 


535.  In  West  Virginia. 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


S36'  537-  The  First  Battle. 


539.  On  the  Coast. 


"  On  to  Richmond." 
The  opposing  forces. 
Victory  at  Manassas. 
.  Effect  of  the  battle. 
Defeat  of  Gov.  Jackson's  plans. 
538.  In  Missouri.  -<j   Battle  of  Wilson's  Creek. 
Federals  in  control. 
f  Privateers. 
\  Blockade  runners. 
540.  The  Trent  Affair. 


f  542,  543.  Kentucky  and  Ten-  f  Mill  Spring. 

nessee  seized.         \  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson. 

544.  Battle  of  Shiloh. 

Ej 

H 

545.  The  Upper  Mississippi:  Fall  of  Confederate  strongholds. 

£ 

546.  West  of  the  Mississippi  :  Battle  of  Pea  Ridge. 

1 

w     •< 

547.  Bragg's  Invasion  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

{> 

H 

H 

548.  In  Northern  Mississippi  :  luka  and  Corinth. 

3 

to 

549.  Bragg's  Second  Movement  :  Murfreesboro. 

*% 

("The  defenses  of  New  Orleans. 

J3 

550.  The  Lower  Mississippi.^  The  Union  attack. 

1 

. 

t  The  fall  of  the  city. 

T  551.  On  the  Sea  :  Monitor  and  Merrimac. 

08 

C/5 

552-554.  The  Peninsular   f  McCIellan  Against  Richmond. 
Canmaijrn.      ^   Jackson's  Valley  campaign. 

w 

. 

[_  The  seven  days'  battles. 

B.H 

555.  Pope  against  Richmond  :  Second  Bull  Run. 

H 
a 

556.  Lee's  Invasion  of  the  North  :  Antietam  or  Sharpsburg. 

557.  Burnside  against  Richmond  :  Fredericksburg. 

558.  Emancipation  Proclamation. 

w  .    r 

h 

W  £  J   560.  Hooker  against  Richmond  :  Chancellorsville. 

1 

ssW    1   5^r'  5^2-  Lee's  Second  Invasion  of  the  North  :  Gettysburg. 

fi 

M        I 

f  563.  Fall  of  Vicksburg. 

£ 

{Galveston. 

_     . 

o    . 

H 

Sabme  Pass. 

b 

S 

(  Chickamauga. 

1 

"S 

^     . 

W 
S 

565-567-  Around  Chattanooga.  «j  fe&  of  CAh/ttan?  °^ 
i    Lookout  Mt.  and  Mis- 

3 

H 

l       sionary  Ridge. 

H 

2 

568.  The  Conscription  Act  :  Draft  Riot  in  New  York. 

L 

,   569.  West  Virginia  Admitted  to  the  Union. 

CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR. 


415 


572,  573-  Lieutenant-General  Grant. 


p'°motion- 


His  plan. 
574.  Grant's  Plans  against  Richmond. 

f  The  Wilderness. 

575 


Lee  versus  Grant.  <    Spottsylvania  Court  House. 
i    Cold  Harbor. 
I  Results. 


576.  Butler's  Movements  :  On  James  River. 


31583 


577.  The  Shenandoah  Valley,    f  Sigel's  defeat. 

578.  Grant's  Change  of  Base.   <j   Butler's  defeat. 

579.  The  Petersburg  Mine.        [_  Early's  campaign. 

C  f  (  Sherman  and  Forrest. 

£     571.  Minor  Movements.  -3  ^ 

H     -  (  Banks's  Red  River  Expedition. 

J  58°,  581-  Campaign  against  ("  Sherman  and  Johnston. 

Atlanta.  {  Sherman  and  Hood. 

2.  Hood  in  Tennessee :  Franklin,  Nashville. 
Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea. 

{Port  of  Mobile  closed. 
Alabama  and  Kearsarge. 
„,      „,  ,     ,  & 

The  Shenandoah. 
™       ,,.     .  , 
The  Plortda. 
Price  in  Missouri. 

585.  Exchange  of  Prisoners. 

586.  Presidential  Campaign  of  1864. 

(  March  of  Devastation. 
588,  ^89.  Sherman  in  the  Carohnas.  \ 

(  Opposed  by  Johnston. 

590.  Sheridan's  Raid. 

591.  Evacuation  of  Richmond  and  Surrender  of  Lee. 

592.  Assassination  of  Lincoln. 

593.  Surrender  of  Johnston  :  Close  of  War. 

594.  Robert  E.  Lee. 

595.  Numbers  engaged  in  the  War. 

<  In  Men. 

596.  597.  Losses.  I  In  Money 

598.  The  Armies  Disbanded. 

599.  Slavery  Abolished. 

f  Tariff. 

„  Paper  Money. 

600.  Finances  of  Federal  Government.  <^  ^.^  ^ 

\  Internal  Revenue. 

60 1.  Finances  of  the  Confederacy. 


THE    STATES    REUNITED. 


RECONSTRUCTION     PERIOD. 

(JOHNSON,  GRANT.) 
JOHNSON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

One  Term:   1865-1869. 

604.  Services    and  Character   of   the   New   President: 
Andrew  Johnson  was    born  in  North   Carolina  in   1808,  and 
removed  in  1826  to  Tennessee.     He  was  a  tailor  by  trade,  but 
was  drawn  early  in  life  to  take  a 

deep  interest  in   politics.      He  is 

said  to  have  been  taught  reading  HiP^"      JWMfc 

and    writing    by    his    wife    after      ]•  mSam.  \ 

marriage.  He  served  his  adopted 
state  for  many  years  in  various 
positions.  He  was  congressman 
for  ten  years,  1843-1853,  governor 
for  four  years,  1853-1857,  and  he 
was  twice  chosen  U.  S.  senator. 
His  death  in  1875  interrupted  his 
second  term  as  senator.  Johnson 

was  a  devoted  friend  to  the  Union,  and  at  the  same  time  a  firm 
believer  in  states'  rights.  He  was  bold  to  the  point  of  rash- 
ness, stubborn  in  the  maintenance  of  what  he  believed  to  be 
right,  and  so  aggressive  as  to  provoke  rather  than  to  concil- 
iate opposition. 

605.  Lincoln's  Plan   of    Reconstruction.  —  Long  before 
the  war  closed  Lincoln  had  devised  a  plan  for  restoring  the 
seceded  states  to  their  places  in  the  Union.     In  his  message 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY.  41 7 

to  Congress  in  1863  he  outlined  the  following  policy  :  all  who 
would  take  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitution  were  to  be 
allowed  to  vote ;  if  they  numbered  ten  per  cent  of  the  voting 
population  of  1860,  they  could  reorganize  a  state  government. 
If  he  had  lived  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  would  have  been 
strong  enough  to  carry  out  his  plan,  and  that  the  Southern 
states  would  have  been  speedily  restored  to  the  Union. 

606.  Johnson's  Political  Position. — In  electing  Johnson 
vice-president  the  Republicans  made  a  mistake  similar  to  that 
made  by  the  Whigs  in  1840  (§  455).  Before  the  war  he 
had  been  a  Democrat,  but  he  refused  to  give  up  his  seat  in 
Congress  when  his  state,  Tennessee,  seceded,  because  he  be- 
lieved secession  to  be  the  work  of  the  aristocratic  element, 
which  he  thoroughly  hated.  He  was  placed  upon  the  ticket 
with  Lincoln  in  recognition  of  the  Southerners  who  had 
been  loyal  to  the  Union,  and  not  because  he  was  a  Republi- 
can. Johnson  had  been  very  vindictive  in  his  .utterances 
against  the  Southern  leaders,  and  claimed  that  the  majority  of 
the  people  had  been  misled  by  them.  He  desired  that  the 
conquered  states  might  be  at  once  restored  to  the  Union.  He 
proclaimed  amnesty  to  all  except  a  few  classes  to  whom  par- 
don was  to  be  granted  only  upon  personal  application.  He 
wished,  as  Lincoln  had  done,  to  restore  peace  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. He  declared  that  reconstruction  was  the  work  of  the 
president,  not  Congress.  His  plan  was  to  turn  the  states  over 
at  once  to  the  people,  trusting  them  to  manage  their  own 
affairs.  In  conformity  with  his  proclamation,  all  the  seceded 
states  formed  new  state  governments  and  elected  representa- 
tives to  Congress,  —  but  when  Congress  met  in  1865  ^ 
ignored  the  president's  plan,  and  refused  to  recognize  the 
Southern  representatives.  The  "  Radicals  "  had  a  large  ma- 
jority in  Congress,  and  easily  passed  measures  over  the  presi- 
dent's veto,  thus  rendering  him  powerless. 


41 8  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

607.  Congress's  Plan  of  Reconstruction.  —  A  resolution 
was  passed  in   Congress  that  "the  seceded    states   have,  by 
their  own  actions,  temporarily  lost  their  right  of  self-govern- 
ment, and  it  is  the  duty  of  Congress  to  restore  it  to  them  under 
such  conditions  as  will  secure  to  each  state  a  republican  form 
of  government,   as  provided  for   in  the    Constitution."     The 
conditions  were  embodied  in  the  i4th  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution, which  gave  citizenship  to  the   negroes   and  disfran- 
chised most  of  the  prominent  whites  of  the  South.     Tennessee 
was  the  only  Southern  state  that  ratified  the  amendment  at 
this  time,  and  it  was  restored  to  the  Union  in  July,  1866.     The 
other  states  defied  Congress  by  rejecting  the  amendment.     By 
act  of  Congress  then  the  ten  states  were  divided  into  five  mili- 
tary districts,  under  the  control  of  Federal  officers.     This  bill, 
and  others  like  it,  were  passed  over  the  president's  veto. 

608.  Distrust  of  the  President.— The  Thirty-ninth  Con- 
gress adjourned  March  4.     Under  the  law  the  next  Congress 
would  not  meet  until  the  first  Monday  in  December.     Johnson 
was  so  distrusted  by  the  Radicals  that  they  feared  to  leave  him 
without  a  Congress  for  so  long  a  time,  and  so,  before  their 
adjournment,  they  changed  the  time  of  meeting  of  the  Fortieth 
Congress  to  March  4,  thus   allowing  no  interim  between  the 
sessions  of  the  old  Congress  and  the  new  one.     This  session, 
however,  lasted  but  one  month,  and  adjourned.1 

609.  States  Readmitted;  a  New  State.  —  The  Southern 
states,  at  last,  seeing  that  Johnson  was  powerless  to  help  them, 
and  finding  their  position  under  military  rule  hard  to  bear,  com- 
plied with  the  demands  of  Congress  and  ratified  the  i4th  amend- 
ment, which  was  declared  adopted  in  i868.2     By  June,  1868, 

1  It  held  a  short  session  in  July  (3d  to  aoth)  and  then  adjourned  to  November. 

2  "  The  Fourteenth  Amendment  has  revolutionized  the  character  of  our  political 
system.     It  declares  that  all  persons  born  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States  are 
citizens.    Prior  to  that  amendment,  one  was  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  only 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD.  419 

all  the  states  had  acquiesced  in  the  demands  of  Congress 
except  Georgia,  Virginia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas.  Before  the 
close  of  1870  those  states  had  also  regained  their  places  in  the 
Union. 

The  new  state  of  Nebraska  was  admitted  in  1867. 

610.  The  Result  of  Reconstruction  Policy.  —  The  "  recon- 
structed "  state  governments  were  altogether  unsatisfactory  to 
the  white  people  of  the  South.     The  "  iron-clad  "  oath,  which 
required  every  candidate  for  office  to  swear  that  he  had  not 
taken  any  part  in  secession,  excluded  nearly  all  who  were  fit 
to  hold  offices.     A  swarm  of  greedy  and  mostly  unprincipled 
men  from  the  North  —  the  "  carpet-baggers  "  1  —  poured  into 
the   South,  and,  by  misleading   the    ignorant   and   credulous 
negro  voters,  got  control  of  the  state  and  local  governments. 
Extravagance  and  corruption  in  public  affairs  became  the  order 
of  the  day.     This  was  the  darkest  time  in  the  history  of  the 
South.     The  "  carpet-bag  "  governors  were  able  to  keep  their 
places  only  with  the  help  of  Federal  troops,  and  this  was  not 
wholly  withdrawn  until  1877. 

611.  Impeachment.  —  To  make  the  president  as  helpless  as 
possible,  Congress  passed  the  "  Tenure  of  Office  "  bill,  provid- 
ing that  the  president  could  not  remove  any  of  the  leading  offi- 
cials, his  appointees,  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 

President  Johnson  considered  the  bill  unconstitutional,  and 
refused  to  submit.  Overruling  the  action  of  the  Senate,  he 
removed  Stanton  from  his  position  of  secretary  of  war.2  In  con- 
by  virtue  of  his  citizenship  in  a  particular  state,  and  a  primary  and  paramount 
allegiance  was  due  to  that  state.  The  changed  or  amended  constitution  accepted  by 
the  states  has  consigned  the  doctrine  of  secession  to  the  tomb  of  the  Capulets,  and 
we  have  one  flag,  one  constitution,  one  Union,  one  national  government,  one  destiny." 
—  (Hon.  J.  L.  M.  Curry's  Richmond  Address  to  Confederate  Veterans.) 

1  Called  "  carpet-baggers  "  because  at  first,  moneyless  and  with  no   permanent 
home,  all  their  effects  were  carried  in  a  valise,  or  "  carpet-bag." 

2  "  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  United  States  an  officer  distasteful  to 
the  president,  and  personally  distrusted  and  disliked  by  him,  was  forced  upon  him  as 


42O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

sequence  of  this,  and  other  similar  acts  of  opposition  to  Con- 
gress, the  House  of  Representatives  preferred  charges  of 
impeachment  against  the  president.  He  was  tried  before  the 
Senate,  Chief  Justice  Chase  presiding,  and  after  a  trial  of  six 
weeks  he  was  adjudged  not  guilty.  Conviction  requires  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  senators  ;  thirty-five  of  the  fifty-four 
senators  voted  him  guilty,  and  he  thus  came  within  one  vote 
of  being  removed  from  his  office  as  president  of  the  United 
States. 

612.  Jefferson  Davis  Brought  to  Trial.  —  On  the  3d  day 
of  December,  1868,  Mr.  Davis  was  brought  to  trial  in  the 
Circuit  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  District  of  Virginia, 
before  Chief  Justice  Chase  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  and  District  Judge  Underwood.  Several  indictments 
for  treason  and  for  conspiring  with  Robert  E.  Lee  and  many 
others  to  levy  war  against  the  United  States  were  preferred 
against  him.  He  was  brought  to  trial  on  all  of  them.  A  mo- 
tion to  quash  the  indictments  was  made  by  his  counsel,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  whom  was  Charles  O'Connor  of  New 
York.  After  argument,  Chief  Justice  Chase  announced  that 
the  Court  "  had  failed  to  agree  upon  a  decision  in  regard  to 
the  motion  to  quash  the  indictments  against  Mr.  Jefferson 
Davis,"  and  instructed  the  reporter  of  the  Court  to  record  him 
as  "being  of  opinion  that  the  indictment  should  be  quashed." 
Judge  Underwood,  being  of  a  contrary  opinion,  the  case  was 
certified  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  for  decision. 
No  further  proceedings  were  ever  taken  in  the  cases.  The 
Attorney-General  of  the  United  States  never  asked  the  Supreme 
Court  for  a  hearing  on  the  certificate ;  and,  at  a  subsequent 

one  of  his  confidential  advisers  in  the  administration  of  the  government.  .  .  .  The  his- 
tory of  every  preceding  administration,  and  of  every  subsequent  administration  of 
the  Federal  government,  proves  that  the  Senate  was  in  the  wrong."  (Elaine's 
"  Twenty  Years  in  Congress.") 

When  Grant  became  president  this  bill  was  practically  set  aside  at  his  request ; 
and  in  1885  it  was  entirely  repealed. 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD. 


421 


term  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  United  States  for  Virginia,  all 
the  indictments  against  Mr.  Davis  were  dismissed.1  It  is 
manifest  from  these  proceedings  that  the  counsel  for  the  United 
States  became  satisfied  that  they  could  not  procure  a  convic- 
tion of  Mr.  Davis  before  their  own  tribunals.  He  had  long 
previously  been  fully  vindicated  by  the  enlightened  public 
opinion  of  the  world. 

613.  Maximilian  in  Mexico Louis  Napoleon,  the  French 

Emperor,  had  taken  advantage  of  the  war  in  the  United  States 
to  subjugate   Mexico.     At  the  close  of  the  war  the   United 
States  government  demanded   the  withdrawal  of  the  French 
troops  (§  420).     Napoleon  yielded,  leaving   to  his  fate  Max- 
imilian,  Arch-Duke  of  Austria,  whom  he  had  made  Emperor 
of  Mexico.     Maximilian  rashly  remained  in  that  country,  and 
was  captured  and  shot  by  the  Mexicans. 

614.  The   Atlantic   Cable Several   attempts  had    been 

made   to   connect   the    New   and   Old   World   by   telegraph. 


Great  E 


These  efforts  finally  proved  successful  in  1866.  Cyrus  W. 
Field  2  was  the  active  leader  in  the  great  enterprise  of  laying  the 
submarine  telegraph-wire  between  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland 

1  Authorities:  Federal  cases  in  the  Circuit   and   District  Courts  of  the  United 
States,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  63-102,  inclusive. 

2  Field  modestly  said  of  this  great  achievement:  "  Matthew  F.  Maury  furnished 
the  brains.  England  gave  the  money,  and  I  did  the  work."     (See  §  503.) 


422 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


and  Ireland.     The  steamship  Great  Eastern  —  at  that  time  the 
largest  vessel  ever  constructed  —  was  used  for  this  purpose. 

615.  Purchase  of  Alaska.  —  This  territory  had  been  dis- 
covered in  1741  by  Vitus  Behring,  a  Russian  explorer.  Its 
name  was  changed  from  Russian  America  to  Alaska  at  the  time 
of  its  purchase  by  the  United  States. 


In  1867  the  United  States  purchased  Alaska  from  the  Rus- 
sian government  for  $7,200,000.  Alaska  consists  of  about 
500,000  square  miles.  Part  of  it,  the  Aleutian  Islands,  extends 
so  far  west  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  as  to  make  the  meridian  of 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD.  423 

longitude  passing  through  San  Francisco  nearly  midway  be- 
tween the  extreme  eastern  and  extreme  western  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Alaska  has  proved  valuable  on  account  of  the 
seal  fisheries. 

6 1 6.  Election  of  1868.  —  General  U.  S.  Grant,  of  Illinois, 
to  whom  the  chief  credit  for  the  final  success  of  the  Union 
arms  was  due,  had  won  thereby  great  prestige,  and  had  become 
very   popular  with  the  masses  of  the  people   of  the   United 
States.     He  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  Republi- 
cans in  1868.     Schuyler  Colfax  was  the  Republican  nominee 
for  vice-president.     The  platform  endorsed  the  reconstruction 
acts  of  Congress. 

The  Democrats  nominated  Horatio  Seymour,  of  New  York, 
and  Francis  P.  Blair,  of  Missouri,  as  their  candidates  for 
president  and  vice-president.  Their  platform  favored  the 
"  immediate  restoration  of  all  the  states  to  their  rights  in  the 
Union  under  the  Constitution."  They  declared  the  reconstruc- 
tion acts  "usurpation,  unconstitutional, revolutionary,  and  void." 

Of  the  294  electoral  votes  Grant  received  214,  Seymour,  80. 
Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia  were  not  allowed  to  vote  be- 
cause they  had  not  been  readmitted. 

617.  Summary.  —  A  conflict  soon  arose  between  President  Johnson  and 
Congress  as  to  the  method  of  readmitting  the  seceded  states.     A  bill  was 
passed  over  the  president's  veto  dividing  the  South  into  five  military  districts 
under  the  control  of  Federal  officers.    Nebraska  was  admitted  in  1867.    It 
was  1870  before  all  the  Southern  states  were  restored  to  their  places  in  the 
Union.     During  this  reconstruction  period  and  for  some  years  later,  the 
South  was  a  victim  of  the  rascality  and  corruption  of  "  carpet-bag  "  govern- 
ments.    The  quarrel  between  the  president  and  Congress  reached  its  climax 
in  the  impeachment  of  the  president,  which  resulted  in  his  acquittal  by 
one  vote.     Jefferson  Davis  was  brought  to  trial,  but  the  cases  against  him 
were  finally  dismissed.     The  Fourteenth  Amendment,  conferring  the  right 
of  citizenship  upon  the  negroes,  was  declared  adopted.     France  complied 
with  the  demand  of  the  United  States  for  the  withdrawal  of  French  troops 
from   Mexico.     The   Atlantic   cable   was   successfully  laid.     Alaska  was 


424  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

purchased  from  Russia  for  $7,200,000.    General  Grant,  the  Republican  can- 
didate, was  elected  next  president. 

618.  Thought  Questions.  —  If  Lincoln  had  lived  to  the  close  of  his 
second  administration,  in  what  respects  would  the  history  of  the  seceded 
states  have  been  different?  In  what  respects  were  the  ex-slaves  of  the 
South  unfit  to  vote?  When  only  can  universal  suffrage  result  in  good 
government  ?  What  presidents  besides  Johnson  had  bitter  opposition  in 
Congress  ?  Were  any  of  these  impeached  ?  In  what  way  did  the  United 
States  enforce  the  Monroe  Doctrine  during  this  administration  ?  In  what 
presidential  elections  did  Virginia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas  take  no  part  ? 
Why  ?  Why  were  the  cases  against  Jefferson  Davis  dismissed  ? 


GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
Two  Terms:  1869-1877. 

619.  Character  and  Services  of  the  New  President.— 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  was  born  in  1822  at  Point  Pleasant,  in  Ohio. 
Graduated  from  West  Point  in  the  class  of  1843,  he  fought 
with  credit  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  1854  he  resigned  his 
place  in  the  army  and  engaged  in  the  leather  trade.  He  re- 
entered  the  army  in  1861,  and  was  made  a  colonel.  He  was 
rapidly  advanced  in  rank  and  responsibility  until  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  all  the  Union  armies.  After  serving  two  terms 
as  president  he  made  a  tour  of  the  world.  His  last  years  were 
clouded  by  business  reverses.  He  died  on  July  23,  1885. 

Grant  was  a  very  successful  general.  To  him,  more  than  to 
any  other  commander,  was  due  the  final  success  of  the  Union 
forces.  He  was  a  simple-hearted  soldier,  loyal  to  his  friends, 
but  unversed  in  civil  life. 

620.  Treaty  of  Washington.  —  In  187 1  commissioners  from 
England  and  the  United  States  met  at  Washington   to  settle 
"  all  causes  of  difference  between  England  and  the   United 
States."     The  treaty  agreed  upon  provided  for  the  settlement 
of  the  disputes  between  the  two  nations  by  arbitration,  a  mode 


TERRITORIAL  GROWTH 

OF  THE 

UNITED    STATES. 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD.  A 2$ 

of  adjusting  international  contentions  which  marks  a  forward 
step  in  civilization.  The  disputed  questions  settled  were  as 
follows  :  — 

(i)  Alabama  Claims.  —  During  the  war  the  Confederate 
authorities  had  contracted  for  several  ships  to  be  built  in 
England,  the  chief  of  which  was  the  Alabama  (§  584).  The 
United  States  claimed  that  the  damage  done  by  these  vessels 
should  be  paid  for  by  the  English  government.  These  claims 
were  called  the  "Alabama  claims,"  and  were  referred  for  set- 
tlement to  five  commissioners,  one  each  from  England,  United 
States,  Italy,  Brazil,  and  Switzerland.  They  met  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  and  awarded  $15,500,000  to  the  United  States, 
which  amount  was  to  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States  and  distributed  to  the  owners  of  the  property  destroyed 
by  the  vessels  built  in  England. 

(2)  The   Northwest   Boundary.  —  The    dispute    concerning 
the    northwestern    boundary  between    Washington    and    Van- 
couver's Island  was  left  to  the  decision  of   the    Emperor  of 
Germany.      He  declared  in  favor  of  the  boundary-line  claimed 
by  the  United  States. 

(3)  Fisheries. — The  dispute  over  the  right  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States  to  fish  in  the  waters  along  Newfoundland 
was  settled  by  commissioners,  who  decided  that  they  should 
have  the  privilege  of  fishing  in  these  waters  for  twelve  years 
upon  the  payment  of  $5,500,000  to  Great  Britain. 

621.  The  Fifteenth  Amendment  was  ratified  by  the  neces- 
sary three-fourths  of  the  states  in  1870.  This  amendment 
provided  that  no  law  should  be  passed  to  prevent  citizens 
from  voting  on  account  of  "  race,  color,  or  previous  condition 
of  servitude." 


426 


HISTORY    OF    OUR   COUNTRY. 


622.  The  Pacific  Railroad —  The  great  railroad  connecting 
Omaha,  Nebraska,  with  San  Francisco,  California  (a  distance 
of  1900  miles),  and  uniting  the  East  with  the  West,  was  com- 
pleted in  1869.  Three  other  transcontinental  lines  of  railroad 


ute  of  Pacific  Railroad  through  the  mountains. 


have  been  built  since  then,  so  that  one  may  now  travel  across 
the  United  States  in  as  short  a  time  as  the  trip  from  New  York 
to  Boston  required  a  century  ago. 

623.  Great  Fires. —  Several  great  fires  occurred  during  this 
administration,  of  which  the  chief  was  the  Chicago  fire  of 
October  8-9,  1871.  Five  square  miles  were  ravaged  by  the 
flames,  twenty  thousand  houses  were  burned,  property  to  the 
amount  of  two  hundred  million  dollars  was  consumed,  and 
over  two  hundred  and  fifty  persons  perished. 

About  a  year  later  Boston  was  partly  destroyed  by  a  great 
fire,  —  the  loss  amounting  to  $80,000,000.  The  sufferings  of 
the  people  in  these  cities  were  greatly  alleviated  by  generous 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD.  427 

contributions  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  foreign 
nations.  The  burnt  districts  in  both  cities  were  soon  covered 
by  larger  and  better  buildings  than  before. 

624.  Political  Affairs.  —  Grant's  administration  was  marked 
by  great  political  excitement.     The  South  was  struggling  to 
free  itself  from  Radical  misrule,  — •  Republican  administrations 
created   by  the   "  carpet-baggers,"   and  supported  mainly  by 
negro  votes.     A  state  of  affairs  bordering  on  war  existed  there 
until,  by  the  elections  of  1876,  the  Southern  whites  regained 
full  control  of  the  states. 

During  the  time  of  the  Reconstruction  regime  a  secret 
society  called  the  Ku  Klux  Klan  was  organized  in  the  South  to 
check  and  resist  Radical  rule  and  to  hold  the  negroes  in  subjec- 
tion. This  organization  often  resorted  to  violence,  and  crimes 
were  committed  in  its  name,  but  it  was  the  chief  means  of 
preventing  the  lately  enfranchised  negroes  and  the  adventurers 
who  misled  them  from  so  dominating  the  Southern  states  as  to 
destroy  the  very  foundations  of  society. 

625.  Grangers.  —  In  1868   the  secret  society  of  Grangers 
was  organized  mainly  by  farmers  in  the  northwestern  states 
and  spread  rapidly  through  the  South  and  West.     Its  object 
was  to  unite  the  farmers  on  matters  of  common  interest,  as 
well  as  to  benefit  them  in  other  ways. 

626.  Reelection  of  Grant. —  One  wing  of  the  Republican 
party,  composed  of  those  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  Con- 
gressional   policy   of   reconstruction,    became    known    as   the 
"  Liberal  Republicans."     They  hoped  that  by  selecting  a  plat- 
form and  a  candidate  acceptable  to  the  Democrats,  they  might 
defeat  the  Radical  Republican  party.    They  nominated  Horace 
Greeley,1  the  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  for  the  presi- 

1  Greeley  had  been  a  life-long  enemy  of  the  Democratic  party  and  was  not  sup- 
ported very  enthusiastically  by  the  Democrats.  He  died  of  disappointment  before 
the  meeting  of  the  Electoral  College  and  the  opposition  vote  was  scattered  among 
several  candidates. 


428  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

dency.     The    Democratic    convention    endorsed    the    Liberal 
Republican  platform  and  candidate. 

The  regular  Republican  party  renominated  Grant  for  the 
presidency  with  Henry  Wilson,  of  Massachusetts,  for  vice- 
president.  The  electoral  vote  stood  286  for  Grant  and  Wilson 
to  63  for  the  opposition.1 

627.  Corruption  in  Office. —  During  Grant's  two  terms  many 
political  scandals  were  unearthed.  These  were  due  doubtless 
in  a  large  measure  to  laxity  in  administration,  consequent  upon 
the  war,  and  also  to  the  credulity  of  the  president,  who  was  a 
famous  soldier,  but  not  well  adapted  to  great  civil  responsibili- 
ties. 

The  Credit  Mobilier  was  a  company  organized  to  build  the 
Pacific  Railroad.  It  was  discovered  in  1873  that  measures 
promoting  its  interest  had  been  passed  through  Congress  by 
means  of  bribery. 

Back  Salary  Grab.  —  In  1872  a  bill  was  passed  by  Congress 
advancing  the  salaries  of  many  of  the  officers  of  the  government. 
The  president's  salary  was  raised  from  $25,000  to  $50,000  per 
annum.  The  salary  of  a  congressman  was  raised  from  $5000 
to  $7500  per  annum.  The  act  made  the  advance  in  salaries 
date  from  the  beginning  of  the  current  term.  The  law  was 
nicknamed  the  "back-salary  grab,"  and  provoked  such  opposi- 
tion throughout  the  country  that  it  was  speedily  repealed, 
except  as  to  the  salaries  of  the  president  and  the  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court. 

Whiskey  Ring.  —  In  1875,  it  was  discovered  that  a  "  whiskey 
ring,"  composed  of  prominent  officials,  had  colluded  with 
distillers  in  the  West  in  defrauding  the  government  of  the 
revenue  on  whiskey.  Several  persons  of  wealth,  social  influ- 
ence, and  high  standing  were  tried,  convicted,  and  punished 
for  this  violation  of  the  laws  of  the  land. 

i  Seventeen  of  the  votes  against  Grant  were  not  counted  by  Congress.  The  total 
number  of  votes  against  him  was  80. 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD.  429 

Impeachment  of  Belknap.  —  In  1876,  Secretary  of  War 
Belknap  was  impeached  for  receiving  bribes  for  appointment 
of  officers.  He  escaped  conviction  by  resigning  his  office. 

628.  Indian  Troubles.  —  Two  insurrections  occurred  among 
the    Indians    during    Grant's  'administration.     The   first   was 
among  the  Modocs  in  Oregon.     They  were  subdued  after  a 
year's  fighting. 

The  Sioux  'Indians  in  Montana,  under  their  chief,  Sitting 
Bull,  defied  the  Federal  authorities.  In  June,  1876,  General 
Custer,  with  a  small  band  of  250  men,  attacked  a  large  force  of 
these  Indians,  and  he  and  all  his  men  were  killed  after  a  brave 
resistance.  The  Sioux  then  retreated  into  British  America. 

629.  Financial   Matters.      Panic  of  1873.  —  A   financial 
panic  occurred  in  1873,  and  its  effects  continued  to  be  felt  for 
several  years.     It  was  caused  by  the  lavish  expenditures  of 
the  war,  a  series  of  poor  crops,  the  too  rapid  building  of  rail- 
roads, the  contraction  of  the  currency,  and  the  demonetization 
of  silver.     From  1868  to  1872  the  railroad  mileage  of  the  United 
States   increased   50   per  cent.      The  panic  started  from  the 
failure  of  a  banking  house  in  Philadelphia,  which  was  largely 
concerned  in  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad. 

Demonetization  of  Silver.  —  Early  in  1873  a  coinage  act  was 
passed  in  which  the  silver  dollar,  which  had  always  been  legal 
tender,  was  dropped  from  the  list  of  coins  to  be  minted.  The 
silver  dollar  was  worth  more  at  this  time  than  the  gold  dollar. 
The  effect  of  the  omission  of  the  silver  dollar  from  the  coinage 
act  was  to  destroy  the  full  legal  tender  power  of  silver,  stop 
its  free  coinage,  and  thereby  lessen  its  value.  This  omission 
was  hardly  noticed  at  the  time,  and  its  effect  was  understood 
neither  by  the  people  nor  by  many  members  of  Congress. 

Resumption  of  Specie  Payments.  —  The  "  greenbacks  "  *  which 
Congress  had  issued  during  the  war  were  worth  much 

1  Paper  money,  the  back  of  each  bill  being  printed  in  green  ink. 


430 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


less  than  their  face  value,  because  Congress  was  unable  to 
redeem  them  in  specie.  In  1875  an  act  was  passed  declaring 
that  on  January  i,  1879,  specie  payments  would  be  resumed. 
Greenbacks  at  once  rose  to  par,  and  have  since  remained  on 
the  same  level  as  gold  and  silver. 

630.    The  Centennial  in  1876.  —  In  spite  of  the  financial 
stringency,  the  xooth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 


Centennial   Exhibition   Buildings,  Philadelphia,  1876. 

pendence  was  celebrated  with  great  success  at  Philadelphia  by 
an  International  Exposition.  It  was  followed  by  a  series  of 
centennial  anniversaries  at  several  historic  spots,  commemorat- 
ing important  events  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

631.  The  Centennial  State.  —  Colorado  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1876,  and  hence  it  is  called  the  "  Centennial  State." 

632.  The  Election  of  1876.  —  The  Republicans  nominated 
for    president    Rutherford    B.   Hayes,    of    Ohio,   and   W.    A. 
Wheeler,  of  New  York.      A  strong  element  of  the   Republi- 
can party  endeavored  to  renominate  Grant  for  a  third  term, 
but  the  opposition  was  too  decided. 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD.  431 

The  Democrats  nominated  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  New  York, 
for  the  presidency,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  for 
the  vice-presidency. 

The  campaign  was  very  exciting.  The  congressional  elec- 
tions in  1874  had  shown  a  reaction  toward  the  Democratic 
party.  At  first  the  election  of  Tilden  was  conceded  by  the 
Republican  press,  but  soon  afterward  the  result  of  the  elec- 
tions in  the  states  of  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  and  Florida 
was  claimed  to  be  uncertain.  In  South  Carolina  and  Florida 
many  Democratic  votes  were  thrown  out,  on  the  ground  that 
Republican  voters  had  been  intimidated  and  so  prevented  from 
voting.  The  "  Returning  Boards" *  in  these  two  states  declared 
the  Republican  electors  chosen.  The  Democratic  electors 
charged  fraud,  and  claimed  that  they  had  been  elected ;  so 
both  sets  of  electors  met  and  sent  in  their  votes  to  Congress. 
In  Louisiana,  the  Returning  Board,  refusing  to  comply  with 
the  law  in  many  points,  declared  the  Republican  electors 
chosen,  and  the  governor,  who  was  held  in  his  place  by  Fed- 
eral troops,  gave  them  certificates.  McEnery,  the  Democratic 
candidate  for  governor,  claimed  the  election,  and  gave  certifi- 
cates to  the  Democratic  electors.  Oregon  also  sent  in  two 
sets  of  returns.  One  of  the  Republican  electors  was  declared 
disqualified  by  the  governor,  who  appointed  instead  a  Demo- 
crat to  serve  as  elector. 

Not  counting  the  votes  of  the  states  of  South  Carolina, 
Florida,  Louisiana,  and  Oregon,  Tilden  received  184  votes, 
Hayes,  163.  A  joint  rule  adopted  by  Congress  in  1865  pro- 
vided that  disputed  electoral  votes  could  only  be  counted  by 
the  consent  of  both  Houses.  If  this  rule  had  been  followed, 
Tilden  wo'uld  have  been  declared  elected,  inasmuch  as  he  had 


1  "  Returning  Boards "  were  created  by  law  during  the  Reconstruction  troubles, 
and  invested  with  extraordinary  powers  over  the  counting  of  votes  in  disputed  elec- 
tions. They  could  throw  out  votes  and  manipulate  the  figures  as  they  chose,  and  no 
appeal  could  be  taken  from  their  decision. 


43 2  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes  about  which  no  question 
could  be  made.  The  Democratic  House  wished  now  to  follow 
this  rule.  The  Republican  Senate  refused  to  abide  by  it. 

633.  The  Electoral  Commission.  — To  settle  the  dispute, 
which  was  not  provided  for  in  the  Constitution,  the  Electoral 
Commission  was  created.     It  consisted  of  live   senators  (two 
Democrats  and  three  Republicans),  five  representatives  (three 
Democrats  and  two  Republicans),  and  five  supreme  judges. 
The  act   creating  the  commission    provided  that  two  of  the 
judges   should  be  Republicans,  and  two  Democrats,  the  four 
judges  to  choose   the  fifth    themselves.1     A   Republican  was 
chosen,  thus  constituting  the  commission  eight  Republicans  and 
seven  Democrats.     The  commission,  by  a  party  vote  of  8  to  7, 
decided  in  favor  of  the  Republican  electors  for  South  Carolina, 
Florida,  and  Louisiana,  counted"  the  Republican  instead  of  the 
Democratic  elector  from  Oregon,  and  thus  gave  the  presidency 
to  the  Republican  candidate.     Hayes  and  Wheeler  thus  re- 
ceived an  electoral  vote  of  185,  while  Tilden   and  Hendricks 
received  184. 

634.  Summary.  —  A  treaty  with   England  in   1871   provided  for  the 
peaceful  settlement  of  the  Alabama  claims,  the  Northwest  boundary,  and 
the  Fishery  dispute.     The  Fifteenth  Amendment,  giving  negroes  the  right 
to  vote,  was  declared  adopted.     The  first  Pacific  Railroad  was  completed. 
Fires  at  Chicago  and  Boston  caused  great  loss  of  property.     Grant  was 
reelected  over  Horace  Greeley,  the  candidate  of  the  Liberal  Republicans 
and  Democrats.    The  administration  was  characterized  by  much  corruption 
in   office.     Silver   was  demonetized  and  specie  payments  were  resumed. 
The  Centennial  Exposition  was  held  at  Philadelphia.     Colorado  was  ad- 
mitted.    The  Electoral  Commission  settled  the  disputed  presidential  elec- 
tion by  declaring  Hayes,  the  Republican  candidate,  elected  over  Tilden, 
his  Democratic  opponent. 

1  Doubtless  Judge  David  Davis,  an  Independent  Democrat,  would  have  been 
selected  had  he  not  resigned  his  office  just  at  this  time  to  accept  a  senatorship  from 
Illinois.  The  choice  then  fell  on  Judge  Bradley,  a  Republican. 


RECONSTRUCTION    PERIOD.  433 

635.  Thought  Questions.  —  Name  the  presidents  who  owed  their 
election  to  military  renown.  If  the  principle  of  "  arbitration "  in  the 
settlement  of  national  disputes  had  been  recognized  from  the  beginning  of 
our  history,  what  war  could  most  readily  have  been  averted  ?  Were  any 
of  our  wars  inevitable  ?  Recall  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1800;  of  1824.  In  what  ways  did  the  contest  of  1876 
differ  from  the  others  ? 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (RECONSTRUCTION  PERIOD). 

604.  The  New  President. 

f  Lincoln's  plan. 
605-607.  Reconstruction  Plans.  <|   Johnson's  plan. 

L  Plan  of  Congress. 

608.  Distrust  of  the  President :  By  Congress. 

f  The  Fourteenth  Amendment. 

609.  Remission  of  the  States.  |  ^  readmission 

610.  Result  of  Reconstruction   f  The  "  iron-clad  "  oath. 


| 
M 

s, 

g     ]  C  The  judges. 

612.  Jefferson  Davis  Brought  to  Trial.  •{   The  indictment. 

[  The  result. 

613.  Maximilian  in  Mexico. 


Policy.  1  "  Carpet-bag"  governments, 

f  Tenure  of  Office  Bill. 

611.  Impeachment  of  the  President.  <j   Johnson's  opposition. 

Impeachment  and  trial. 


614.  The  Atlantic  Cable 


f  The  leader  of  the  enterprise. 
\  Laying  of  the  cable, 
f  Discovery  and  name. 

61 5.  Purchase  of  Alaska.  <J    Purchase  by  United  States. 

[  Extent  of  territory. 

f  Candidates  and  platform. 

616.  Presidential  Election.  J,   _       ..     ,  ..       .  pf. 

1^  (^  Result  of  the  election. 

,  £      f  619.  The  New  President. 

Q  O  r  Alabama  claims. 

rn  <3  E^      D2°-  Treaty  of  Washington.  ^  Northwest  boundary, 
r^  K  ^J  [_  Fishery  dispute. 

5  w»  !   621.  The  Fifteenth  Amendment. 


434 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


it 


623.  Great  Fires.  -I 


624.  Political  Affairs. 


At  Chicago. 
At  Boston. 

Misrule  of  "  Carpet-baggers. 
,  The  Ku  Klu 

625.  The  Grangers. 

626.  Reelection  of  Grant. 


628.  Indian  Troubles. 


Split  in  Republican  party. 
Result  of  the  election. 
r  The  Credit  Mobilier. 

627.  Corruption  in  Office.  J  ™e  ba'k  ^  Srab' 
I   The  whiskey  ring. 

I  Impeachment  of  Belknap. 
f  The  Modocs  in  Oregon. 
\  The  Sioux  in  Montana. 
f  Panic  of  1873. 

629.  Financial  Matters,  -i   Demonetization  of  silver. 

[  Resumption  of  specie  payments. 

630.  The  Centennial  at  Philadelphia. 

631.  Colorado  Admitted. 

f  The  candidates. 

632.  633.  Presidential  Election.  J   Contested  result 

j    Settlement  by  Electoral  Com- 

l       mission. 


RECENT    EVENTS. 


435 


RECENT    EVENTS. 

(HAYES  TO  CLEVELAND.) 

HAYES'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
One  Term  :  1877-1881. 

636.  Life  and  Services  of  the  New  President Ruther- 
ford   B.    Hayes  was   born   in 

Ohio  in  the  same  year  as 
President  Grant,  1822.  He 
was  a  lawyer  by  profession, 
but  rose  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general in  the  War  be- 
tween the  States.  He  served 
one  term  in  Congress,  and 
three  terms  as  governor  of 
Ohio.  After  one  term  as 
president  he  lived  quietly  at 
his  home  in  Ohio,  where  he 
died  in  1893.  President  Hayes 
was  a  man  of  great  purity  and 
dignity  of  character.  His  in- 
fluence Was  Wisely  USed  tO  Rutherford  B.  Hayes. 

mitigate  sectional  feeling,  and  to  promote  justice  and  sound 
ideas  in  the  administration  of  the  government. 

637.  Character  of  the   Period.  —  This  period  was  charac- 
terized by  steady  growth.     The  country  was  recovering  from 
the  results   of  the  war    and   gathering   new   strength.       The 
administration  was  an  unusually  quiet  one.     There  is  little  of 
importance  to  be  recorded  in  its  history. 


43^  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

638.  The   Southern   States.  —  The   Southern    Democrats 
regained    control    of    all   the    Southern    States.      Soon    after 
Hayes   became    president    he   withdrew   the    Federal    troops. 
Without  their   presence  the  Republican  governors   of  South 
Carolina  and  Louisiana  could  not  support  their  claims.     The 
Supreme  Court  of  Florida,  though  Republican  in  its  personnel, 
refused  to  sustain  the  claim  of  the  Republican  candidate  for 
governor.     The    other    Southern    states    had   already   become 
Democratic. 

639.  Labor  Troubles.  —  The  early  part  of  the  administra- 
tion was  marked  by  serious  labor  disturbances.     Thousands  of 
persons  were  unable  to  secure  employment  and  the  country  was 
filled  with  tramps.     In  1877  serious  riots  occurred  among  rail- 
road employees.     Concerted  action  was  taken  by  them  all  over 
the  country.     The   most  serious  troubles  were  at   Pittsburg, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis.     These  riots  cost  about  one  hundred 
lives  and  more  than  three  million  dollars'  worth. of  property. 

640.  Financial  Legislation.  —  In   1878   silver,  which  had 
been  demonetized  in  1873,  was  restored  to  its  place  as  legal  ten- 
der.1   The  Resumption  Act  (§  629)  went  into  effect  during  this 
administration.    It  restored  confidence  in  the  financial  soundness 
of  the  government.      In  consequence  of  this  restoration  of  con- 
fidence in  the  ability  of  the  government  to  meet  its  obligations, 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury  borrowed  money  at  a  much  lower 
rate  of  interest  than  the  bonds  already  issued  bore.     The  new 
bonds  were  sold  bearing  a  lower  rate  of  interest,  and  with  the 
money  thus  secured  bonds  bearing  a  higher  rate  of  interest  were 
paid  as  they  matured.  This  was  called  refunding  the  national  debt. 

1  The  bill  was  called  the  Bland  Bill,  from  the  name  of  the  congressman  who  intro- 
duced it.  It  did  not  provide  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver.  An  amendment  by 
Senator  Allison  was  adopted  requiring  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  purchase 
and  coin  into  dollars  monthly  not  less  than  two  million  dollars'  worth  of  silver,  and 
not  more  than  four  million  dollars'  worth. 


RECENT    EVENTS. 


437 


641 .  Inventions.  —  The  telephone  and  the  electric  light  were 
perfected  during  this  period.     The  telephone  was  perfected  by 
Bell  and  Graham  in   1877.     The  electric  light  was  introduced 
in  1878.     Edison  in  1877  gave  to  the  world  the  phonograph. 

642.  Yellow  Fever.  —  In  1878-79  yellow  fever  prevailed  in 
many  places  in  the  Southern  states,  especially  in  the  Mississippi 
valley.     Of  the  twenty  thousand  persons  who  had  this  fever, 
about  one-third  died  from  its  effects.     Since  that  time  medical 
science  has  shown  that  yellow  fever  can  be  excluded  from  this 
country  by  disinfection  and  quarantine. 

643.  The  Presidential  Election  of  1880.  —  Strenuous  ef- 
forts were  again  made  in  the  Republican  party  to  nominate 
ex-President  Grant  for  a  third  term.     After  a  long  wrangle  the 
Republican  convention  nominated  James  A.  Garfield  of  Ohio 
for  president,  and  Chester  A.  Arthur  of  New  York  for  vice- 
president. 

The  Democrats  nominated  General  W.  S.  Hancock  of  Penn- 
sylvania for  president,  and  William  H.  English  of  Indiana  for 
vice-president. 

The  Greenback  party  nominated  James  B.  Weaver  for  presi- 
dent, but  he  received  no  electoral  vote. 

Hancock  received  the  electoral  vote  of  the  "  Solid  South,"  l 
Nevada,  and  California,2  a  total  of  155.  Garfield  and  Arthur 
received  the  remainder  of  the  electoral  votes,  214,  and  were 
accordingly  elected. 

644.  Summary.  —  President  Hayes  withdrew  the  United  States  troops 
that  had  been  upholding  the  carpet-bag  governments  in  the  South,  and 
the  state  administrations  in  this  section  at  once  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Democratic  party.    A  bill  remonetizing  silver  was  passed.    The  process 
of  refunding  the  national  debt  began.     The  telephone,  electric  light,  and 

1  All  of  the  states  that  had  belonged  to  the  Southern  Confederacy  voted  the 
Democratic  ticket,  and  hence  were  called  the  "  Solid  South." 

2  One  of  the  votes  of  California  was  cast  for  Garfield. 


438  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

phonograph  were  introduced.  A  severe  yellow-fever  epidemic  raged  in  the 
South.  In  the  presidential  election,  Garfield,  the  Republican  candidate, 
was  elected. 

645.  Thought  Questions.  —  Define  the  following  terms  :  legal  tender; 
demonetization  of  silver;  resumption  of  specie  payments;  refunding  the 
debt. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  GARFIELD  AND  ARTHUR. 
One  Term:  1881-1885. 

646.  Life  and  Services  of  Garfield.  —  James  A.  Garfield, 
like  his  two  predecessors,   was  a  native  of  Ohio,  where  he 

was  born  in  1831.  Reared 
in  poverty  he  worked  his 
way  through  college,  and 
was  graduated  from  Wil- 
liams. He  studied  law  and 
taught  school  in  his  native 
state.  He  served  for  a  while 
in  the  army  during  the  war, 
winning  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  Elected  to  Con- 
gress, he  left  the  army  and 
thereafter  devoted  himself 
to  political  life.  He  was 
sent  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
James  A.  Garfield.  sentatives  four  times  in  suc- 

cession, and  had  just  been  elected  to  the  Senate  when  he 
received  the  nomination  to  the  presidency. 

President  Garfield  was  well  equipped  for  the  duties  of  the 
presidency.  A  man  of  culture,  and  versed  in  public  life,  his 
knowledge  of  civil  affairs  gave  promise  of  a  wholesome  admin- 
istration. 

647.  Appointments  to  Office.  —  Soon  after  his  accession  to 
the  presidency  Garfield  became  involved  in  a  wrangle  with  the 


RECENT    EVENTS. 


439 


Senate^over  appointments  to  office.  The  senators  from  New 
York  opposed  the  confirmation  of  the  president's  appointee  to 
the  collectorship  of  the  port  of  New  York.  Being  unable  to 
defeat  the  confirmation  of  the  appointee  through  what  is  known 
as  the  "  courtesy  of  the  Senate  " *  they  resigned  their  seats  in 
Congress.  This  increased  the  bitterness  between  the  two  fac- 
tions of  the  Republican  party,  and  indirectly  led  to  the  tragic 
death  of  the  president. 

648.  Assassination  of  Garfield — Charles  J..  Guiteau  was 
a  weak-minded,  disappointed   office-seeker.     In  order,  as  he 
said,  "  to  make  Arthur  president,  and  unite  the  Republican 
party,"  he  planned  the   death  of  the  president.     On  July  2, 
1881,  at  a  railway  station  in  Washington,  he  accomplished  his 
purpose  by  shooting  President  Garfield  in  the  side.     For  twelve 
weeks  the  sufferer  lingered  between  life  and  death,  and  on 
September  19  died  at  Elbe- 

ron,  N.  J.    The  entire  people 
mourned  his  death. 

649.  The    Accession    of 
Arthur.  —  By  the  death  of 
Garfield,  Vice-President 
Arthur  became  chief  magis- 
trate of  the   United  States 
and   served    the   remainder 
of  the  term. 

650.  Life  and  Services 
of   President  Arthur.— 

Chester    Allan   Arthur  was 

born   in   Vermont  in    1830.      He   was  college-bred,   and  like 

Garfield,   taught  school  and  studied  law.      He  held  the  col- 

1  The  "  courtesy  of  the  Senate  "  requires  all  the  senators  of  one  political  party  to 
vote  on  questions  of  official  appointments  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  senators 
(of  their  party)  from  the  state  in  which  the  office  to  be  filled  is  situated. 


Chester  A.  Arthur 


44°  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

lectorship  of  the  port  of  New  York  under  Grant's  administra- 
tion and  was  put  on  the  ticket  as  vice-president  to  please  the 
"  Stalwarts,"  as  those  favoring  the  nomination  of  Grant  for 
the  third  term  were  called.  He  made  a  good  president.  He 
died  in  New  York  in  November,  1886. 

651.  Star  Route  Frauds. —  In  1881  it  was  discovered  that 
the  government  was  being  defrauded  of  several  million  dollars 
per  year  by  the  contractors  of  the  "  star  routes  "  1  in  the  West. 
Although  several  prominent  officials  were  tried,  and  for  lack  of 
sufficient  evidence  were  acquitted,  the  investigations  stopped 
the  abuse. 

652.  Polar  Expeditions.  —  The  New  York  Herald  sent  out 
an  expedition  in  the  ship  Jeannette,  under  Captain  De  Long,  to  ex- 
plore the  Arctic  seas  north  of  Behring's  Strait.     The  ship  was 
caught   by    icebergs,   and    after    drifting   several  months   was 
crushed.     Some  of  the  party,  after  terrible  sufferings,  reached 
the  coast  of  Siberia. 

An  expedition  under  Lieutenant  Greely  located  on  Lady 
Franklin  Bay,  west  of  Greenland,  and  not  receiving  aid  when 
expected,  resulted  in  disaster.  When  the  party  was  rescued  in 
June,  1883,  only  seven  of  the  twenty-four  had  survived  the  cold 
and  privation  of  the  Arctic  winter. 

653.  Important  Legislation.     Law  against  Polygamy. — In 

1882  Congress  passed  a  severe  anti-polygamy  law.  The 
religion  of  the  Mormons  allows  polygamy.  Utah,  where  the 
Mormons  live,  had  not  been  admitted  to  the  Union  because 
if  it  should  become  a  state  it  could  pass  its  own  laws  on  this 
subject. 

Civil  Service  Reform.  —  In  1883  Congress  passed  a  bill  to 
provide  for  the  filling  of  many  offices  through  competitive 

1  In  the  United  States  when  mail  is  carried  in  any  other  way  than  by  rail  the 
route  is  called  a  "  star  route." 


RECENT    EVENTS. 


441 


examinations  on  the  basis  of  merit,  without  regard  to  the 
political  affiliations  of  the  applicants  for  positions.  This 
reform  makes  tenure  of  office  more  certain,  and  secures  better 
service  for  the  government.  It  was  opposed  by  politicians  in 
both  parties,  who  believed  that  "to  the  victor  belong  the  spoils." 
The  Tariff  of  1883.  —  An  attempt  was  made  in  1882  to 
reduce  the  tariff,  but  it  failed.  It  became  manifest  that  the 


East  River  Ferry  (between  Brooklyr 
York)  in  1746. 


high  tariff  which  had 
been  needed  to  pay  off 
the  war  debt  was  no 
longer  necessary,  as  the 
treasury  had  an  increas- 
ing surplus  of  money. 

Accordingly,  in  1883   a  bill  was  passed  slightly  lowering  the 

import  charges,  chiefly  on  articles  not  produced  in  this  country. 
Letter  postage  in  1883  was  reduced  from  three  cents  to  two 

cents  per  one-half  ounce.1     Postal  notes  were  introduced  the 

same  year. 

1  In  1885   letter  postage  was  further  reduced  to  two  cents  per  ounce  or  fraction 
thereof. 


442  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

654.  The  Brooklyn  Bridge.  —  Work  on  the  bridge  connect- 
ing New  York  and  Brooklyn  had  been  begun  in  1870.     It  was 
completed   in  May,  1883.     This  famous  bridge  is  5,989  feet 
long,  and  its  cost  was  $16,000,000. 

655.  Standard  Time.  —  During  the  same  year  the  railroads 
adopted  what  is  known  as  standard  time.     Local  time  for  the 
meridians  of  75°,  90°,  105°,  and  120°  was  adopted  as  standard 
time  for  the  Eastern,  Central,  Mountain,  and  Pacific  divisions, 
respectively.     All  places  within  any  one  division  use  the  same 
time.     When  it  is  twelve  o'clock  in  the   Eastern  division  it  is 
one,  two,  and  three  hours  earlier,  respectively,  in  the  Central, 
Mountain,  and  Pacific  divisions. 

656.  Disasters.  —  The  summer  of  1881  was  marked  by  a 
very  protracted  drouth.     Crops  all  over  the  country  were  great- 
ly damaged.     Many  forest  fires  occurred.     Of  these  the  most 
destructive  were  in  Michigan.     In  this  state  as  many  as  five 
thousand  persons  were  rendered  homeless,  and  several  hun- 
dred lost  their  lives. 

The  next  year  was  notable  for  the  great  floods.  The  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  rivers  rose  higher  than  ever  before,  producing 
great  overflows  and  causing  immense  damage  to  property,  as 
well  as  the  loss  of  many  lives.  The  Mississippi  River  was,  in 
places,  over  one  hundred  miles  wide. 

657.  Expositions.  —  The  great  Cotton  Exposition  was  held 
in  Atlanta,  Georgia,  in    1881.     It  showed  that  the   Southern 
states  had  adapted  themselves  with  wonderful  success  to  the 
changed  conditions  brought  about  by  the  late  war. 

In  the  same  year  the  Centennial  Celebration  of  the  Sur- 
render of  Cornwallis  was  held  at  Yorktown,  Virginia. 

Three  years  later  a  World's  Exposition  was  held  at  New 
Orleans.  It  served  to  promote  trade  relations  with  Mexico 
and  Central  America. 


RECENT  EVENTS. 


443 


658.  The  Cincinnati  Riot.  —  In  1884  a  riot  occurred  in  Cin 
cinnati  on  account  of  delay  in  the  courts.     Over  one  hundred 
lives  were  lost  before  it  was  suppressed. 

659.  Election  of  1884.  —  In  1884  the  question  of  reducing 
duties  on   foreign  imports  became    a  national    issue.     These 
duties  were  still  maintained  at  nearly 

the  same  rates  as  had  been  levied 
during  the  War  between  the  States. 
They  yielded  a  revenue  beyond  the 
needs  of  the  government  and  thus 
caused  an  increasing  surplus  in  the 
national  treasury. 

The  Republicans  nominated  '"^.v? .: '."* 
James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  for  the  presi- 
dency, and  John  A.  Logan,  of  Illinois,  for  the 
vice-presidency.  Their  platform  proposed 
reduction  in  the  revenues  "  by  such  methods 
as  will  relieve  the  tax-payer  without  injuring 
the  laborers  or  the  great  productive  interests 
of  the  country." 

The  Democratic  platform  declared  the 
protective  tariff  a  burdensome  tax  no  longer 
necessary,  and  demanded  a  tax  "  for  revenue 
only."  They  nominated  Grover  Cleveland, 
of  New  York,  for  the  presidency,  and 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  for  the 
vice-presidency. 

Nominations  for  the  presidency  and  vice- 
presidency  were  also  made  by  the  Prohibi- 
tionists (J.  P.  St.  John,  of  Kansas,  and  Wm. 
Daniel,  of  Maryland),  and  the  Greenback  Labor  and  Anti- 
Monopoly  party  (B.  F.  Butler,  of  Massachusetts,  and  A.  M. 
West,  of  Mississippi).  The  Prohibitionists  cast  151,809  votes, 
and  the  Anti-Monopolists  133,825. 


Washington   Monument, 
Washington,  D.  C., 
completed  1885. 


444  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

Cleveland  and  Hendricks  were  elected,  receiving  219  electoral 
votes.  Their  opponents  received  182.  Thus  for  the  first  time 
in  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  Democrats  elected  and  seated  a 
president. 

660.  Summary.  —  A   few   months   after   his   inauguration,    President 
Garfield  was  assassinated   by  a  weak-minded,  disappointed  office-seeker. 
Vice-President  Arthur  succeeded  to  the  presidency.     "  Star-route  "  frauds 
perpetrated  on  the  government  by  contractors  for  carrying  the  mails  in  the 
West  were  discovered  and  checked.     Two  unsuccessful  polar  expeditions 
were   made.     A  stringent   law   against   polygamy   was   enacted.     A  civil 
service  law  making  merit,  rather  than  political  service,  the  basis  of  appoint- 
ment to  office  was  passed.     Expositions  were  held  in  Atlanta  and  New 
Orleans.     A  law  reducing  letter  postage,  and  the  adoption  of  standard  time 
by  the  railroads  proved  of  great  benefit.     In  the  presidential  election  Cleve- 
land, the  Democratic  candidate,  was  successful. 

661.  Thought  Questions.  —  If  polygamy  is  part  of  the  religious  belief 
of  the  Mormons,  how  can  anti-polygamy  laws  of  Congress  be  justified  (see 
Constitution,  Amendment  I)  ?     How  does  civil  service  reform  secure  better 
official  service  ? 


CLEVELAND'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION. 
One  Term :  1885-1889. 

662.  Life  and  Services  of  the  President.  —  Grover  Cleve- 
land was  born  in  New  Jersey  in  1837.  His  father  removed  to 
New  York  in  1841.  Left  an  orphan  by  the  death  of  his  father, 
his  youth  was  spent  in  poverty.  He  studied  in  the  Academy 
at  Clinton,  made  himself  a  lawyer,  was  assistant  district  attor- 
ney, sheriff,  and  mayor  at  Buffalo,  and  was  elected  governor  of 
New  York,  in  1882,  by  nearly  200,000  majority.  He  served 
(1893-97)  a  second  term  as  president.  Before  the  end  of  his 
second  term  he  lost  the  confidence  and  support  of  the  majority 
of  his  party. 


RECENT    EVENTS. 


445 


663.  The  Reform  President.  —  Cleveland  won  the  name  of 
the  Reform  President  by  the  changes  which  he  proposed  in  the 
administration  of  the  gov- 
ernment, but  the  Republi- 
cans had  a  majority  in  the 

Senate,  and  so  the  Demo- 
cratic party  was  unable  to 
make  the  changes  proposed 
in  the  tariff.  President 
Cleveland  carried  out  the 
civil  service  reform  idea 
more  thoroughly  than  his 
predecessors  had  done.  He 
was  noted  for  his  moderate 
course  in  regard  to  remov- 
als from  Office.  Grover  Cleveland. 

664.  Deaths.  — -On  July  23,  1885,  ex-President  Grant  died. 
Universal   sorrow  was  manifested  and    his  funeral  was   such 
as  befitted  one  to  whom  the  Union  owed  so  much.      Several 
prominent  Confederate  generals,  among  them  General  Jos.  E. 
Johnston,  officiated  at  his  funeral. 

On  the  25th  of  November,  1885,  the  vice-presidency  became 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Vice-President  Hendricks. 

665.  Important  Legislation.     Presidential  Succession.  —  By 
a  law  passed  in  1792,  the  president  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate 
and  the  speaker  of  the  House  were  to  succeed  in  order  to  the 
presidency  in  case  of  death,  resignation,  or  disability  of  both 
the  president  and  vice-president.     The  death  of  Vice-President 
Hendricks  occurred  when  Congress  was  not  in  session,  that  is, 
when  there  was  neither  a  president/^  tempore  of  the  Senate  nor  a 
speaker  of  the  House.     Thus,  if  the  president  were  to  die,  there 
would  be  no  one  to  succeed  to  the  position,  and  the  country  would 
be  left  without  a  chief  magistrate.     In  1886  a  law  was  passed 


44-6  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

changing  the  order  of  succession  to  the  presidency,  and  pre- 
scribing that  cabinet  officers  shall  succeed  to  this  position  in  a 
certain  specified  order.1 

Counting  of  Electoral  Vote.  —  The  peril  incurred  in  1876  in 
counting  the  electoral  vote  led  ten  years  later  to  the  passage  of 
an  act  providing  more  definitely  against  the  recurrence  of  such 
a  crisis.  The  act  provided  that  the  electoral  votes  which  both 
houses  agree  to  be  legal  shall  be  counted.  In  case  of  disagree- 
ment, those  votes  are  to  be  counted  which  have  the  certificate 
of  the  governor  attached. 

In  1887  the  Interstate  Railroad  Commission  was  established 
by  Congress  to  regulate  railroad  transportation  between  states. 

In  the  same  year  a  more  stringent  bill  was  passed  to  prevent 
polygamy  among  the  Mormons  (§  652). 

The  year  following  Congress  passed  a  law  prohibiting 
Chinese  immigration  for  a  period  of  ten  years. 

666.  Labor  Troubles.  —  The  quarrel  between  labor  and 
capital  attracted  attention  from  time  to  time  for  many  years. 
It  culminated,  in  1886,  in  strikes  all  over  the  United  States. 
In  Chicago  the  strikers  manifested  their  sympathy  with  the 
Anarchists  (chiefly  foreigners  who  were  opposed  to  government 
of  any  kind).  A  fight  occurred  with  the  police  and  about 
eighty  persons  were  killed.  This  trouble  was  started  by  a 
dynamite  bomb  thrown  by  Anarchists  among  the  policemen. 
The  bomb  exploded  and  killed  seven  of  the  officers.  The 
Anarchist  leaders  were  arrested  and  tried,  and  four  were  ex- 
ecuted. The  others  were  sentenced  to  long  terms  of  imprison- 
ment, but  were  liberated  in  1893  on  the  ground  that  they  had 
not  been  justly  treated  in  the  trial. 

i  The  following  is  the  order  of  presidential  succession  in  the  cabinet :  (i)  secretary 
of  state ;  (2)  secretary  of  the  treasury ;  (3)  secretary  of  war ;  (4)  attorney-general ; 
(5)  postmaster-general ;  (6)  secretary  of  the  navy;  (7)  secietary  of  the  interior; 
(8)  secretary  of  agriculture. 


Copyright  by  Charles  T.  Root 

LIBERTY   ENLIGHTENING   THE  WORLD 

A  Statue  in  the  Harbor  of  New  York  City,  given  to  the  American  People  by  the 
People  of  France 


RECENT    EVENTS.  447 

667.  The  Charleston  Earthquake —  The  South  Atlantic 
seaboard  was  visited  by  severe   earthquake  shocks   in   1886. 
The  center  of  the  disturbance  was  near  Charleston,  S.  C.     Im- 
mense damage  was  done  to  property.     Nearly  every  house  in  the 
city  was  either  destroyed  or  much  injured  (August  31,  1886). 

668.  The  Statue  of  Liberty.  —  The  French  people,  to  show 
their  admiration  for  the  United  States,  presented  to  the  people 


Houses  Destroyed  by  the.  Earthquake. 

of  our  country  a  statue  of  "  Liberty  Enlightening  the  World." 
The  statue  was  made  in  France,  by  the  artist  Bartholdi,  at 
a  cost  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars.  It  is  the  largest  work 
of  the  kind  in  the  world,  its  height  being  292  feet.  The 
interior  of  the  head  contains  standing  room  for  forty  persons. 
It  faces  the  entrance  to  New  York  harbor. 

669.  Political  Questions. —  The  tariff  on  imports  added  to 
the  internal  revenues  on  liquor  and  tobacco  yielded  the  govern- 
ment an  annual  surplus  of  $100,000,000  after  all  the  expenses 
had  been  paid.  President  Cleveland  recommended  to  Con- 
gress, in  December,  1887,  such  a  reduction  in  the  tariff  as 


448  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

would  make  the  receipts  and  the  expenses  of  the  government 
more  nearly  equal.  The  Mills  *  bill,  which  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives,  but  was  defeated  in  the  Senate,  was  intended 
to  carry  out  the  policy  recommended  by  the  president.  The 
House  was  Democratic  and  the  Senate  was  Republican.  So 
the  issue  was  made  before  the  people  in  the  presidential  elec- 
tion on  the  tariff  policy  of  President  Cleveland. 

670.  Presidential  Election  of  1888.— The  Democrats  re- 
nominated  Cleveland,   with  Allen  G.  Thurman,   of  Ohio,  for 
vice-president.     Their  platform  demanded  a  reduction  of  the 
tariff  to  the  revenue  basis.     The  Republicans  nominated  Ben- 
jamin Harrison,  of  Indiana,  for  president,  and  Levi  P.  Morton, 
of  New  York,  for  vice-president.      Their  platform  advocated 
protection  for  American  industries. 

The  Prohibitionists  and  the  United  Labor  party  put  up  can- 
didates also,  but  they  got  no  electoral  votes. 

Cleveland  was  defeated,  the  Republican  candidates  receiving 
233  electoral  votes  to  Cleveland's  168.  The  popular  vote  for 
Cleveland  exceeded  that  for  Harrison  by  94,611. 

671.  Summary.  —  President  Cleveland  carried  out  with  great  firmness 
his  ideas  of  reform  in  the  civil  service.  '  The  deaths  of  General  Grant 
and  Vice-President  Hendricks  occurred  during  this  administration.     There 
were  quarrels  between  capital  and  labor  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
and    a    conflict    between    Anarchists    and    the    police    of    Chicago.      An 
earthquake    at    Charleston,    S.  C.,    did    great    damage.      The    statue   of 
"  Liberty  Enlightening  the  World  "  was  presented  to  the  United  States 
by  the  French  people.     Laws  regulating  the  presidential  succession,  pro- 
viding for  the  settlement  of  disputed  elections,  establishing  an  Interstate 
Railway  Commission,  and  forbidding  Chinese  immigration  were  passed. 
In  the  presidential  election,  the  reduction  of  the  tariff  was  made  an  issue 
between  the  parties.     Cleveland  was  beaten  for  reelection  by  Harrison,  the 
Republican  candidate. 

672.  Thought  Questions.  —  Who  was  the  last  Democratic  president 
before  Cleveland  ?    What  are  the  arguments  in  favor  of  restricting  Chinese 

1  So  named  from  its  author,  Hon.  Roger  Q.  Mills  of  Texas. 


RECENT  EVENTS. 


449 


immigration?  Why  do  the  Chinese  come  to  this  country?  Why  do  they 
settle  in  the  West  ?  What  immigrants  have  been  most  valuable  to  us  ? 
What  sort  of  immigrants  are  undesirable  ?  What  political  question  was 
most  prominent  during  this  administration  ?  How  may  a  candidate 
receiving  a  minority  of  the  popular  vote  be  elected  president  ? 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  BENJAMIN  HARRISON. 


One  Term:  1889-1893. 

673.  Life  and  Services  of  the  New  President.  —  Benjamin 
Harrison  (grandson  of  President  William  Henry  Harrison) 
was  born  in  Ohio  on  the  2oth  of  August,  1833.  After  gradu- 
ating at  Miami  University, 
and  studying  law,  he  went 
to  Indiana  to  practice  his 
profession.  He  entered 
the  Union  army  in  1861, 
and  had  reached  the  rank 
of  brevet-brigadier  general 
when  the  war  closed.  Re- 
turning then  to  Indianapo- 
lis he  resumed  the  practice 
of  law.  He  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate 
in  1880. 

674.  The  Pan-Ameri- 
can Congress The  Pan- 
American  (Pan  is  a  Greek 

word  meaning  "  all ")  Congress  was  a  body  composed  of 
sixty-six  delegates  from  eighteen  of  the  North,  Central,  and 
South  American  governments.  They  met  in  Washington  on 


4$O  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

October  2,  1889,  and,  after  spending  six  weeks  visiting  lead- 
ing cities,  continued  their  deliberations  until  May,  1890. 
The  object  of  the  meeting,  as  stated,  was  the  promotion  of 
friendly  feeling  and  closer  intercourse  between  the  American 
peoples.  One  useful  recommendation  made  by  the  congress 
was  that  the  nations  represented  should  settle  their  disputes 
by  arbitration  rather  than  war. 

675.  Congressional  Legislation.  —  The  McKinley  Bill.  — 
In  the  campaign  of  1888  the  Republicans  had  committed  them- 
selves to  the  policy  of  increasing  the  tariff  ;  and  as  they  now 
had  control  of  both  Houses  of  Congress  they  proceeded  to 
pass  a  new  tariff  law,  which  was  named  from  its  framer *  the 
McKinley  Bill.  Under  this  tariff  the  duties  on  a  large  num- 
ber of  imported  articles  were  increased,  while  they  were  re- 
duced or  altogether  removed  on  others.  The  law  contained, 
besides,  a  section  which  authorized  the  president  to  impose 
duties  on  articles  otherwise  free,  if  they  came  from  foreign 
countries  in  which  duties  were  levied  on  exports  from  this 
country.  This  was  known  as  the  "  Reciprocity  Policy,"  and 
was  suggested  by  Secretary  of  State  James  G.  Elaine.  Trea- 
ties were  afterward  made  with  some  of  the  South  American 
countries,  as  well  as  with  Spain  (in  the  interest  of  her 
American  possessions,  especially  Cuba)  under  the  provisions 
of  this  law. 

Silver  Again.  — The  advocates  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver. 
not  satisfied  with  the  Bland  Bill  (§  640,  note),  continued  to 
demand  legislation  in  favor  of  "  the  white  metal."  The  result 
was  a  compromise  called  the  Sherman  Act,  from  Senator  John 
Sherman  of  Ohio.  One  of  its  provisions  was  that  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  should  buy  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver 
monthly,  and  pay  for  it  in  treasury  notes. 

l  Hon.  William  McKinley,  member  of  Congress  from  Ohio. 


RECENT    EVENTS.  451 

676.  Diplomatic  Troubles President  Harrison's  adminis- 
tration was    noted   for   an    unusual  number  of  disputes  with 
foreign  powers.     None  of  them,  however,  led  to  an  actual  con- 
flict of  arms. 

The  Mafia.  —  One  of  these  disputes  was  with  Italy.  It 
resulted  from  a  lynching  in  New  Orleans.  The  chief  of  police 
of  that  city  was  assassinated,  and  the  evidence  pointed  pretty 
conclusively  to  some  resident  Italians  who  were  members 
of  a  dangerous  secret  society  called  the  Mafia.  As  the 
courts  failed  to  convict  the  murderers,  the  indignant  citizens 
broke  into  the  jail  where  they  were  still  confined,  and  put  them 
to  death.  The  Italian  government  protested  and  demanded 
reparation  of  the  United  States,  on  the  ground  that  some  of 
the  men  killed  were  Italian  subjects.  The  secretary  of  state, 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  disclaimed  responsibility,  and 
war  seemed  imminent.  Our  government  agreed  at  last  to 
pay  a  money  compensation  to  the  families  of  some  of  the 
victims,  and  Italy  accepted  the  situation. 

Samoa.  —  Germany  claimed  special  control  over  the 
Samoan  Islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  claim  was  disputed 
by  the  United  States,  and  matters  looked  serious  for  a  while. 
The  question  was  settled  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Berlin,  provid- 
ing that  England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  should 
guarantee  the  independence  of  these  islands. 

Chili.  —  Our  country  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  a  war 
with  Chili  in  1891.  The  trouble  resulted  from  the  murder 
of  some  sailors  belonging  to  the  warship  Baltimore,  who  had 
gone  ashore  at  Valparaiso.  They  were  attacked  in  the  streets 
by  a  mob,  and  two  of  them  were  killed.  Chili  finally  dis- 
avowed the  deed,  and  agreed  to  pay  damages  to  the  United 
States. 

677.  New  War-ships.  —  One  important  result  of  these  in- 
cidents was  that  attention  was  directed  to  the  weakness  of  our 


452 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


navy  in  comparison  with  the  navies  of  the  other  great  nations. 
Steps  were  at  once  taken  to  remedy  the  weakness.     Liberal 


The   Flag-ship  Chicago. 

appropriations  were  made,  and  contracts  were  let  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  number  of  first-class  war-ships. 

678.  Minor  Events.  —  Oklahoma,  a  district  in  the  heart  of 
the  Indian  Territory,  covering  nearly  40,000  square  miles, 
was  opened  to  settlement  in  1889.  10,000  new  homesteads 


RECENT    EVENTS.  453 

were  offered,  and  the  struggle  to  get  them  was  highly  exciting. 
Such  was  the  rush  of  people  to  the  new  territory  that  the  pop- 
ulation in  1890  was  over  60,000,  and  in  1894  it  was  250,000. 

Johnstown  is  a  busy  manufacturing  city  situated  on  the 
Conemaugh  river,  in  central  Pennsylvania.  On  May  13,  1889, 
the  people  of  this  little  city  were  terrified  by  the  awful  sight 
of  a  column  of  water  forty  feet  deep  and  half  a  mile  wide 
rolling  madly  down  the  valley  to  where  the  town  lay.  A  dam 
had  broken  on  the  heights  above,  and  the  flood  rushed  down 
so  swiftly  that  an  express  train  could  not  escape  it.  More 
than  5,000  people  perished,  and  $10,000,000  worth  of  property 
was  destroyed. 

679.  New    States.  —  Four   new    states   were  admitted   in 
1889,    the    law   providing   for    their   admission    having   been 
passed  in    1888.     These  were   North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 
Montana,  and  Washington.      Idaho   and  Wyoming   were    ad- 
mitted in  1890.     The  number  of  stars  in  the  American  flag 
was  raised  from  38  to  44  in  President  Harrison's  administra- 
tion. 

680.  Hawaii.- — Early   in    1893    a   revolution  occurred  in 
Hawaii.     The  queen  had  proclaimed  a  constitution  which  was 
adverse  to  the  interests  of  the  large  number  of  foreign  residents 
of  the  island.     A  mass  meeting  was  held,  the  queen  and  her 
constitution  were  denounced,  and  the  protection  of  the  United 
States  was  invoked.     A  body  of  soldiers  from  an  American 
war-ship  was  landed,  the  queen  was  deposed,  and  a  provisional 
government  was  organized.     Commissioners  were  sent  on  to 
Washington  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  annexation  with  the  United 
States.     President  Harrison  entered  into  a  treaty  and  sent  it 
to  the  Senate  for  confirmation  shortly  before  the  expiration  of 
his  term.     The  treaty  was  withdrawn  by  President  Cleveland 
two  days  after  his  inauguration  and  nothing  further  has  been 
done  toward  annexation. 


454  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

68 1.  The  Eleventh  Census  was  taken  in  1890  and  showed 
a  population  of  62,622,250,  a  gain  of  about  25  per  cent  in  ten 
years.     The  census  showed  that  the  South  had  made  wonder- 
ful progress  during  the  decade.     The  center  of  population  was 
found  to  have  moved  forty-eight  miles  westward ;  it  is  located 
in  Indiana,  twenty  miles  east  of  Columbus. 

682.  Election   of    1893.  —  The    Republicans   renominated 
President  Harrison,  and  put  Whitelaw  Reid  of  New  York  on 
the  ticket  for  vice-president.       Grover  Cleveland  was  again 
nominated    by   the    Democrats    with    Adlai    E.    Stevenson    of 
Illinois   as  the   candidate  for  vice-president.       The   only  im- 
portant   difference    in   the    platforms    of   the   Democrats   and 
Republicans  was  the  tariff  plank.     The  Democrats  demanded 
"  a  tariff  for  revenue  only  "  while  the  Republicans  upheld  the 
McKinley    Bill    and    advocated    "  protection    for   protection's 
sake." 

The  People's  Party  or  "  Populists  "  l  nominated  for  president 
James  B.  Weaver  of  Iowa,  who  had  been  the  candidate  of  the 
Greenbackers  in  1880,  and  General  James  G.  Field  of  Virginia 
for  vice-president.  The  Prohibitionists  nominated  John  Bid- 
well  of  California  for  president,  and  Rev.  J.  B.  Cranfill  of 
Texas  for  vice-president. 

The  election  resulted  in  an  overwhelming  Democratic  vic- 
tory. Cleveland  received  277  electoral  votes,  —  Harrison 
received  145  votes  and  Weaver  22  votes. 

683.  Summary.  —  The  Pan-American  Congress  of  representatives  of 
the  governments  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America  met  in  Washington 
for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  closer  intercourse  between  the  nations  of 

l  The  Populist  party  has  grown  up  within  the  past  few  years.  The  principal 
features  of  its  programme  or  platform  are  as  follows :  Protection  of  labor  against 
capital,  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  i,  loaning  of  money  by  the  govern- 
ment to  its  citizens  at  a  nominal  rate  of  interest,  an  increased  currency,  government 
ownership  of  railroads  and  telegraphs  and  opposition  to  ownership  of  land  by  aliefis. 
The  party  has  grown  out  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance. 


RECENT    EVENTS.  455 

America.  A  high-tariff  bill  known  as  the  McKinley  Bill  was  passed  :  also 
the  Sherman  Act,  providing  for  the  monthly  purchase  of  silver  by  the 
government.  Members  of  the  Italian  Mafia  in  New  Orleans,  accused  of 
murder,  were  lynched  by  the  citizens,  resulting  in  a  diplomatic  controversy 
with  Italy.  It  was  agreed  by  treaty  that  England,  Germany,  and  the 
United  States  should  have  joint  control  of  the  Samoan  Islands.  Threatened 
war  with  Chili  was  averted.  The  territory  of  Oklahoma  was  opened  to 
settlement.  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington  were 
admitted  as  states.  Steps  were  taken  by  the  authorities  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  to  secure  annexation  to  the  United  States.  In  the  presidential 
election  Cleveland  was  renominated  by  the  Democrats  and  was  elected. 

684.  Thought  Questions.  —  Which  of  our  presidents  were  related  as 
father  and  son  ?  As  grandfather  and  grandson  ?  In  what  presidential 
elections  has  the  result  turned  upon  the  views  of  the  candidates  on  certain 
political  questions  ?  In  what  elections  has  personal  popularity  decided  the 
result  ?  What  is  meant  by  "  the  free  coinage  of  silver  "  ? 


'CLEVELAND'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION. 
1893-1897. 

685.  The  Silver  Question  Again.  —  Inasmuch  as  the  issue 
in  the  campaign  of  1892  between  the  Democrats  and  the 
Republicans  had  been  the  reform  of  the  tariff,  it  was  gener- 
ally expected  that  the  reduction  of  the  duties  on  imports  would 
be  the  first  matter  to  receive  attention  from  the  new  adminis- 
tration. The  Democrats,  for  the  first  time  since  Buchanan's 
administration,  held  both  houses  of  Congress  as  well  as  the 
presidency  and  therefore  could  pass  any  law  on  which  they 
agreed.  But  a  very  serious  financial  crisis  had  begun  early  in 
1893,  and  President  Cleveland,  deeming  that  the  disorders 
were  due  to  the  silver  purchasing  clause  of  the  Sherman  Act 
(§  675),  convened  Congress  in  extra  session  to  repeal  this  pro- 
vision. After  a  long  wrangle  Congress  repealed  the  section, 
and  adjourned.  This  action,  however,  did  not  arrest  the  panic. 


456  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

686.  The  Revision  of  the  Tariff  was  undertaken  at  the 
regular  session  of  Congress  in  December.     The  Wilson  Bill, 
named  from  Mr.  Wilson  of  West  Virginia,  by  whom  it  was  in- 
troduced, provided  for  a  sweeping  reduction  of  duties,   espe- 
cially on  raw  materials  to  be  used  in  manufactures,  and  was 
passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives.     The  Senate  refused 
to  accept  the  bill  and  so  changed  it  by  amendments  as  to  make 
it  practically  another  bill.    The  House  refused  for  some  time  to 
concur  in  the  amendments,  but  was  finally  forced  to  do  so  or 
have  no  bill   at  all.     This  division  of  the  Democrats  among 
themselves  weakened  the  hold  of  the  party  on  public  con- 
fidence. 

687.  A   New    State.  —  An    act   was    passed   by  Congress 
for  the  admission  of  Utah  as  the  forty-fifth  state. 

688.  Behring  Sea  Arbitration.  —  England  and  the  United 
States  had  been  quarreling  for  several  years  over  the  seal- 
fisheries  in   Behring   Sea.     Secretary   of    State   Elaine,   while 
Harrison  was  president,  had  claimed  that  the  United  States 
had  acquired   jurisdiction   over   the    whole   of  the   sea  when 
Alaska  was  purchased,  and  sealing  vessels  belonging  to  Cana- 
dians had  been  seized.     England  had  protested  on  the  ground 
that  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  extended  only  three 
miles  from  the  shore.     The  matter  was  finally  referred  to  a 
court  of  arbitration  which  met  in  Paris  in  1893.     The  claim  of 
the  United  States  to  the  sea  was  not  sustained ;  but  the  cause 
of  the  claim,  the  prevention  of  wholesale  destruction  of  the 
seals,  was  won. 

689.  The  Columbian  Exposition  held  in  Chicago  in  1893 
proved  to  be  the  grandest  World's  Fair  ever  seen.     It  was  a 
fitting  commemoration  by  the  foremost  nation  in  America  of 
the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus.     "  The  White  City,"  as  the  buildings  containing  the 


RECENT    EVENTS.  457 

collections  were  called,  was  a  marvel  of  beauty  and  magnifi- 
cence. 

690.  Chicago  Strike.  —  In  the  summer  of  1894  a  great 
strike  occurred  in  Chicago.  Beginning  with  the  employees  of 
the  Pullman  Car  Company,  it  spread  to  the  employees  of  the 
railroads  running  into  Chicago,  and  to  other  labor  organiza- 
tions. Riots  ensued,  and  property  estimated  to  be  worth 
$87,000,000  was  destroyed.  The  president  sent  United  States 


troops  to  protect  United  States  property  in  Chicago.  The 
president's  action  in  sending  troops  into  Illinois  without  request 
from  the  state  authorities  was  denounced  by  the  governor  of 
Illinois,  and  has  been  severely  censured.  (See  Const.  Art.  4,  §  4.) 

691.  Atlanta  Exposition.  —  The  citizens  of  Atlanta  gave 
an  exposition  which  in  the  beauty  of  its  buildings  and  grounds 
and  the  extent  of  its  exhibits  was  second  only  to  the  World's 
Fair  at  Chicago.  On  September  18,  1895,  Marion  Cleveland,  the 
president's  daughter,  pressed  an  electric  button  in  Gray  Gables, 
Massachusetts,  the  gates  at  the  exposition  grounds  at  Atlanta 
swung  open,  and  the  great  fair  began.  The  Atlanta  Exposition 
showed  that  the  states,  especially  the  South,  had  made  marvel- 
lous progress. 


458  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

692.  Era  of  Good  Feeling.  —The  restoration  of  good  feel- 
ing between  the  North  and  the  South  has  progressed  rapidly 
within  recent  years.  A  Confederate  monument  was  dedicated 
in  Chicago  on  Memorial  Day,  1895.  Expressions  of  good  will 
from  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  an  organization  com- 
posed of  ex-Federal  soldiers,  have  been  met  by  similar  expres- 
sions from  the  United  Confederate  Veterans,  an  organization 
composed  of  ex-Confederate  soldiers.  The  dedication  of  the 


National  Military  Park  of  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga  was 
marked  by  the  fraternal  mingling  of  ex-Confederate  and  Federal 
officers  and  soldiers. 

693.  The  Force  Bill  Repealed;  Last  Confederate  Dis- 
abilities. —  A  step  in  the  restoration  of  good  feeling  was  the 
repeal  of  the  Force  Bill  by  Congress.  This  bill,  which  became 
a  law  in  the  dark  days  of  Reconstruction,  authorized  the  Fed- 
eral authorities  to  interfere  with  state  elections  and  to  employ 
military  force  at  the  polls.  It  exasperated  the  people  of  the 
South,  and  its  repeal  was  welcomed  as  an  evidence  of  good 
will.  Some  time  later  the  law  was  repealed  which  forbade  ex- 
Confederates  who  had  been  officers  in  the  United  States  Army 


RECENT    EVENTS.  459 

before  the  war  from  again  holding  office  in  the  regular  army. 
Thus  the  last  trace  of  Reconstruction  legislation  vanished. 

694.  Venezuela  Controversy President  Cleveland  star- 
tled the  country  by  a  message  urging  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
(§  420)  should  be  applied  to  an  old  dispute  between  Great 
Britain  and  Venezuela  over  the  boundary  line  between  Vene- 
zuela and  British  Guiana.     Congress  empowered  the  president 
to  appoint  commissioners  to  determine  the  boundary.     Before 
the  commissioners  had  completed   their  investigations  Great 
Britain  agreed  to  arbitration. 

695.  Presidential  Election.  —  The  Republicans  nominated 
William    McKinley    of    Ohio   for   president,    and    Garrett   A. 
Hobart    of    New   Jersey   for   vice-president.      Their   platform 
opposed  the  free  coinage  of  silver  and  endorsed  the  protect- 
ive tariff.      On   the  refusal  of  the  nominating  convention  to 
endorse    the    free    and    unlimited    coinage    of   silver,   Senator 
Teller  of  Colorado  and  twenty  other  delegates  withdrew  from 
the    convention    and    the    party.     The  Democrats    nominated 
William  J.  Bryan  of  Nebraska  for  president  and  Arthur  Sewall 
of  Maine  for  vice-president.      Their  platform  demanded  the 
free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  i,  and 
a  revenue  tariff  equitably  adjusted.     A  number  of  Democrats 
who  were  opposed  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver  held  a  conven- 
tion, and  nominated  John  M.  Palmer  of  Illinois  for  president 
and  Simon  B.  Buckner  of  Kentucky  for  vice-president.     They 
took  the  name  of  the  National  Democratic  party.     The  Popu- 
list party  (§  682,  note)  nominated  William  J.  Bryan  for  president, 
and  Thomas  E.  Watson  of  Georgia  for  vice-president.     They 
adopted  the  free-silver  plank  of  the  Democratic  platform,  and 
favored  government  ownership  of  railroads  and  telegraphs.    The 
Prohibitionists  nominated  Joshua  Levering  of   Massachusetts 
for  president.      McKinley  and  Hobart  were  elected,  receiving 
271    electoral   votes   to    Bryan's    176.     The    popular  vote  for 


460  HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 

McKinley  was  7,105,959,  to  6.454,943  for  Bryan.  The  vote 
for  Palmer  was  133,800,  many  of  the  anti-silver  Democrats 
voting  for  McKinley.  The  Prohibition  vote  was  130,683. 

696.  Summary.  —  At  the  beginning  of  this  administration,  for  the  first 
time  in  thirty-three  years,  the  Democratic  party  controlled  both  houses  of 
Congress  as  well  as  the  presidency.     The  silver  purchasing  clause  of  the 
Sherman  Act  was  repealed.      The   Wilson  bill,  lowering  the  tariff,  was 
passed.     A  quarrel  with  England  over  the  Behring  Sea  fisheries  was  settled 
by  arbitration.     The  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago,  commemorating 
the  4Ooth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America,  proved  to  be  the  grand- 
est World's    Fair  ever  held.      The   Atlanta  exposition   in   1895   showed 
wonderful    progress    of   the    South.     A    strike  of  labor  organizations   in 
Chicago  occasioned  great  loss  of  property.     Expressions  of  mutual  good 
will  from  Northern  and  Southern  veterans  and  the  repeal  of  Reconstruction 
legislation  indicated  an  era  of  good  feeling.     The  president  urged  the  ap- 
plication of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  to  a  boundary  dispute  between  Great 
Britain  and  Venezuela.     In  the  presidential  election  the  Republican  candi- 
dates, McKinley  and  Hobart,  were  successful. 

697.  Thought  Questions.  —  What  different  views  are  held  to-day  on  the 
tariff  ?  the  immigration  question  ?  the  silver  question  ?  suffrage  question  ? 
temperance  question  ?     What  benefits  result  from  expositions?     Was  the 
president  right  or  wrong  in  sending  troops  to  Chicago?      Reasons  for 
your  answer.     How  may  the  Monroe   Doctrine   apply  to  the  Venezuela 
controversy  ? 

MCKINLEY'S  ADMINISTRATION. 
1897- 

698.  Life  and  Services  of  the  New  President.  —  William 
McKinley  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1843.     He  left  college  to  enlist 
as  a  private  in  the  Union  army.     Here  his  gallantry  won  his 
promotion  to  the.  rank  of  major.     After  the  war  he  returned 
to  Ohio,  studied  law,  and  opened  an  office  at  Canton.     Elected 
to  Congress  in  1876,  he  served  six  terms  and  part  of  a  seventh. 
As   chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  he  pre- 
pared and  pressed  to  adoption  the  tariff  bill,  passed  in   1890 
(§  675),  and  thus  attained  great  prominence.     He  was  serving 


RECENT    EVENTS. 


461 


his  second  term  as  governor 
of  Ohio  when  he  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency. 

699.  Congressional  Leg- 
islation.—  As  the  financial 
question  had  been  the  lead- 
ing issue  in  the  campaign, 
it  was  expected  that  finan- 
cial legislation  would  first 
receive  the  attention  of 
Congress  (§  685).  The 
Republican  majority,  how- 
ever, determined  to  take 
up  the  tariff  again.  The 
Dingiey  Bill1  was  passed  by 
both  houses  and  approved 
by  the  president.  Con- 
gress also  provided  for  the  .  Bimetallic  Commission  to  visit  the 
leading  European  nations  and  arrange,  if  possible,  for  the  free 
coinage  of  silver  by  international  agreement.  This  commis- 
sion, called  the  Wolcott  Commission,  from  its  chairman,  Sen- 
ator Wolcott  of  Colorado,  spent  several  months  in  Paris  and 
London,  but  returned  without  having  accomplished  its  mission. 


William   McKinley. 


CONCLUSION. 

We  have  traced  the  history  of  our  country  from  the  dim  days 
of  the  far  past  when  sea-roving  northmen  first  touched  on  its 
shores ;  we  have  followed  the  brave  Columbus  in  his  strange 
voyage  over  the  trackless  ocean  until  he  saw  the  first  land  of 
the  New  World ;  we  have  seen  how  the  fair  new  land  became 
dotted  here  and  there  by  a  few  widely  separated  settlements, 

1  So  called  from  its  author,  the  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee, 
Representative  Dingiey  of  Maine. 


462 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


dreading  wild  beasts  and  wilder  men  ;  we  have  seen  the  sturdy 
settlers  hew  their  way  amid  countless  hardships  and  dangers 
to  lasting  success ;  we  have  seen  the  struggling  colonies  grow 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  tyrannical  demands  of  the  mother 
country  and  to  establish  their  independence ;  we  have  beheld 
the  novel  spectacle  of  a  new  form  of  government  created  by  a 
written  document  called  a  Constitution  ;  we  have  followed  the 
wonderful  growth  of  the  new  nation  as  it  overspread  the  conti- 
nent until  it  reached  the  Pacific  Ocean;  —  then  we  have  shown 
how  the  differences  in  ideas  and  institutions  between  the  North 
and  the  South  grew  into  hate  and  bloodshed  ;  we  have  seen 
the  matchless  courage  and  devotion  to  what  they  believed  to 
be  right  of  the  men  who  wore  the  blue  and  the  men  who 
wore  the  gray ;  we  have  seen  how  the  "  Stars  and  Stripes  " 
prevailed  over  the  "Stars  and  Bars." 

Our  country  has  entered  upon  the  second  century  of  its  in- 
dependence. Its  growth  has  been  the  wonder  of  the  world. 
It  has  emerged  from  the  war  between  the  states  stronger  and 
more  closely  united.  "The  past,  at  least,  is  secure."  New 
perils  and  problems  will  arise  as  conditions  change  ;  but  the 
courage,  energy,  wisdom,  love  of  justice,  and  love  of  country 
which  have  animated  our  fathers  may  be  trusted  to 

guide    their    sons    in    the      I        paths  of  peace  and  progress. 


The  Capitol  at  Washington. 


RECENT    EVENTS.  463 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS  (RECENT  EVENTS). 

636.  The  New  President. 

637.  Character  of  the  Period. 

H          «,Q    TV,.  o™*!.—  e*.+^    f  Withdrawal  of  Federal  troops. 


638.  The  Southern  States.  J    "       ,          "  "   „     ' 

^  rail  of  "carpet-bag     governments. 

639.  Labor  Troubles. 

f  Silver  demonetized. 

640.  Financial  Legislation.  ^    Specie  payments  resumed. 

(_  National  debt  refunded, 
f  Telephone. 

641.  Inventions.  •{   Electric  light. 

(^  Phonograph. 

642.  Yellow  Fever  in  the  South. 

643.  Presidential  Election. 

646.  Life  and  Services  of  Garfield. 

647.  Appointments  to  Office  :  Course  of  New  York  senators. 

648.  Assassination  of  Garfield. 

649.  650.  Accession  of  Arthur :  His  life  and  services. 

651.  Star  Route  Frauds. 

652.  Polar  Expeditions. 


f  Under  Capt.  DeLong. 
\  Under  Lieut.  Greely. 

C  Law  against  polygamy. 

I    Civil  service  law. 


653.  Important  Legislation,  -j  Tariffof  l88;}. 


w  m 

^oo  , 

Postal  laws. 

654.  The  Brooklyn  Bridge. 

655.  Standard  Time. 


656.  Disasters 


Al 


orest  fires. 
Floods. 


< 

At  Atlanta. 

657.  Expositions.  <j    At  New  Orleans. 

[  Centennial  celebration  at  Yorktown. 
Cincinnati  Riot. 

f  Issues  before  the  people. 
Presidential  Election.  1  .,      .      ,  ,       , 

i  Result  of  the  election. 


464  HISTORY   OP   OUR   COUNTRY. 

662.  The  New  President. 

663.  The  President's  Policy. 

664.  Deaths.  (  General  G?mt- 

L  Vice-President  Hendricks. 

f  Presidential  succession. 
I    Counting  of  electoral  vote. 

665.  Important  Legislation.  -J    Interstate  Railway  Commission. 

Anti-polygamy  law- 
(_  Chinese  immigration  law. 

666.  Labor  Troubles  :  Chicago  Anarchists. 

667.  The  Charleston  Earthquake. 

f  The  givers  and  their  purpose. 

668.  The  Statue  of  Liberty.  4  _, 

'     [  Size  and  location  of  the  statue. 

669.  Political  Questions :  The  Mills  Tariff  Bill. 

f  Issues  before  the  people. 

670.  Presidential  Election.  <j  „ 


Result  of  the  election. 

673.  The  New  President. 

{Governments  represented. 
The  meeting  and  its  purpose. 
Results. 

f  The  McKinley  Tariff  Bill. 
67  <:.  Important  Legislation.  •<  _,      „,  • 

L  The  Sherman  silver  purchasing  act. 

C  The  New  Orleans  Mafia. 
676.  Diplomatic  Troubles,  -i   Dispute  over  Samoan  Islands. 

(_  Threatened  war  with  Chili. 
677-  New  War  Ships. 

f  Oklahoma  opened  to  settlement. 

678.  Minor  Events.  -I  „, 

\  The  Johnstown  flood. 

679.  Four  New  States. 

volution  on  the  Island. 
Steps  toward  annexation. 

68 1.  The  Eleventh  Census  :  Growth  of  the  country. 

f  Issues  before  the  people. 

682.  The  Presidential  Election.  4 

\  Result  of  the  election. 


Hawaii.  (  f ' 
I  Ste] 


RECENT  EVENTS. 


465 


CLEVELAND'S 

SECOND 

ADMINISTRATION. 
(1893-97) 


McKINLEY'S 
ADMINISTRATION. 

(1897-) 


685.       Silver 
Legislation. 


Revision 
of  the 
Tariff. 


Financial  crisis. 
Extra  session  of  Congress. 
Repeal  of  Sherman  Act. 
The  Wilson  Bill. 
Disagreement  between  Senate 

and  House. 
Act  to  admit  Utah. 
Behring  Sea  f    Quarrel  with  England. 
Arbitration.  \    Settlement  of  the  disputes. 
Columbian  Exposition. 
Chicago  Strike. 
691.  Atlanta  Exposition. 

r   Among  the  Old  Soldiers. 
692-3.   Era  of  Good!    The  Force  Bill  Repealed. 
Feeling.     1     Confederate  Disabilities 
I       Removed. 

694.  Venezuela  Controversy. 

695.  Presidential  Election. 
^698.  The  New  President. 

<j  699.   Congressional  f    Dingley  Bill. 

(  Legislation.  \    Wolcott  Commission. 


686. 


687. 
688. 

689. 
690. 


APPENDIX    A. 


AN    OUTLINE   OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE. 
BY  LEONARD  LEMMON. 


The  Father  of  American  Literature.  —  Washington  Irving 
(1783-1859),  our  first  great  author,  was  born  in  New  York 
during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  named  for  the  com- 
mander of  the  American  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
forces.  His  family  was 
well-to-do,  and  Irving 
had  an  easy  time.  He 
spent  some  holidays  ex- 
ploring the  country  of 
the  Hudson.  He  made 
an  extended  tour  of 
Europe.  He  studied 
some,  and  read  a  good 
deal.  Solely  as  a  means 
of  amusement,  he  began 
to  write.  His  first  book, 
"A  History  of  New  York 
by  Died  rich  Knicker- 
bocker," presents  a 
humorous,  burlesque 
view  of  the  old  Dutch 
life  of  New  Amsterdam. 
When  Irving  was  thirty- 


11  APPENDIX    A. 

five  years  old,  the  Irving  firm  failed  in  business,  and  Washington 
turned  to  literature  to  make  a  living.  "The  Sketch  Book" 
was  the  first  fruit  of  this  serious  attempt  at  authorship.  It 
contained  "  Rip  Van  Winkle "  and  "  The  Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow,"  now  two  of  the  best  known  short  stories  in  our 
literature.  From  this  time,  for  forty  years  he  was  busy  writing 
books.  Many  of  these  books  were  written  about  subjects  of 
particular  interest  to  Americans.  The  "  Life  of  Columbus," 
"  Life  of  Washington,"  "  Astoria,"  "  Captain  Bonneville,"  are 
of  the  American  series.  "  Alhambra,"  "  Conquest  of  Granada," 
"  Legends  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain,"  are  books  about  Spain. 
Besides  these  are  "  Mahomet  and  His  Successors,"  "  Life  of 
Goldsmith,"  and  others. 

In  representing  our  country  at  foreign  courts,  Irving  spent 
many  years  in  Europe ;  but  the  latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed 
at  Vl  Sunnyside,"  his  estate  on  the  Hudson. 

Because  Irving  was  the  first  native  American  to  win  great 
distinction  as  an  author,  he  is  called  the  "  Father  of  American 
Literature."  It  was  fitting  that  the  namesake  of  the  "Father 
of  our  Country  "  should  be  the  "father"  of  our  literature. 

The  First  Great  Novelist.  — James  Fenimore  Cooper  (1789- 
1851)  passed  his  boyhood  in  a  pioneer  home  on  the  frontier  of 
New  York.  He  spent  nearly  three  years  at  Yale  College,  and 
subsequently  more  than  three  years  in  the  U.  S.  navy.  He 
was  led  to  write  his  first  book  by  accident.  He  was  so  dis- 
satisfied with  an  English  novel  that  had  fallen  into  his  hands 
that  he  asserted  that  he  could  write  a  better  one.  He  wrote 
"  Precaution,"  to  prove  that  he  could.  This  novel  was  a  poor 
one,  but  it  seemed  to  satisfy  Cooper,  for  he  persevered  in  the 
work  so  lightly  begun,  and  before  his  death  he  wrote  more  than 
thirty  novels.  Several  of  these  stories  exhibit  the  pioneer  life 
of  the  wilderness  with  which  he  grew  familiar  in  his  boyhood. 
They  are  «  The  Peerslayer,"  "  The  Pathfinder,"  "  The  Last  of 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE. 


the  Mohicans,"  "The  Pioneers,"  "The  Prairie";  and  from 
the  name  of  their  hero  they  are  called  the  "  Leather-Stocking 
Series." 

But  Cooper  had  spent  several  years  as  a  sailor,  and  he  wrote  a 
series  of  sea  stories.  "  The  Pilot,"  "  The  Red  Rover,"  "  The. 
Two  Admirals,"  are  well-known  sea  tales.  "The  Spy"  and 
"  Lionel  Lincoln  "  are  stories  of  the  Revolution. 

The  "  Leather-Stocking  Series "  gives  a  romantic  view  of 
Indian  and  pioneer  adventure,  and  are  distinctively  American. 
The  sea  tale  was  at  that  day  as  fresh  a  field  as  the  Indian  life 
itself.  Cooper  ranks  as  the  first  great  American  novelist. 

The  Father  of  American  Poetry.  —  William  Cullen  Bryant 
(1794-1878)  was  born 
in  Massachusetts,  and 
spent  his  early  life  on  a 
farm.  He  loved  books 
and  nature,  and  was  a 
very  precocious  scholar. 
His  first  important  poem, 
"Thanatopsis,"  was 
written  when  the  author 
was  but  nineteen.  When 
it  was  printed,  four  years 
later,  it  made  the  author 
famous.  Though  Bryant 
wrote  many  poems  after 
this,  he  never  wrote  a 
better  one.  Late  in  life, 
he  made  excellent  trans- 
lations Of  the  "Iliad"  William  Cullen  Bryant. 

and  the  "Odyssey." 

In  1825  Bryant  removed  to  New  York,  and  lived  there  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  more  than  half  a  century.  He  was  for 


IV  APPENDIX    A. 

many  years   the   editor  of    a    daily  newspaper.     He  was    an 
eminent  and  a  model  citizen.     He  was  our  first  great  poet. 

Minor  Contemporaries.  —  Friends  of  Irving  in  New  York 
'were  two  poets,  Fitz-  Greene  Halleck  and  Joseph  Rodman  Drake. 
The  first  was  the  author  of  a  large  volume  of  poems,  of  which 
"  Marco  Bozzaris  "  seems  to  have  the  most  vitality  ;  the  second 
was  the  author  of  a  long  poem,  "The  Culprit  Fay,"  written  to 
prove  that  a  successful  poem,  based  on  American  scenery  and 
with  an  American  movement,  was  possible.  Drake's  "Ameri- 
can Flag  "  was  a  very  popular  poem. 

A  Later  Contemporary.  —  Edgar  Allan  Foe  (1809-1849) 
was  born  twenty-six  years  after  Irving  and  fifteen  years  after 
Bryant ;  but  Irving  survived  him  ten  years  and  Bryant  twenty- 
nine,  so  that  all  his  writing  was  done  during  the  lives  of  these 
first  great  writers,  though  they  began  before  he  did  and  con- 
tinued after  he  was  dead. 

Poe  was  left  an  orphan  in  his  babyhood,  and  was  adopted  by 
Mr.  John  Allan,  a  wealthy  Virginia  gentleman.  He  attended 
school  in  England  and  at  the  University  of  Virginia  and  at 
West  Point.  He  early  began  to  write  poetry,  and  his  first 
volume,  "Al  Aaraaf,"  was  published  when  its  author  was  but 
twenty  years  old.  Poetry  was  not  very  remunerative  and  Poe, 
who  had  quarreled  with  his  foster-father,  was  very  poor.  With 
the  tale,  "A 'MS.  Found  in  a  Bottle,"  he  won  a  hundred-dollar 
prize.  From  this  good  start  his  fortunes  improved.  He  became 
the  editor  of  "  The  Southern  Literary  Messenger,"  a  magazine 
published  at  Richmond.  He  was  afterward  editor  or  chief  con- 
tributor to  several  other  magazines.  He  wrote  a  large  number 
of  short  tales.  His  critical  writings  make  a  large  volume.  No 
American  poems  have  been  more  widely  read  than  some  that 
he  wrote.  He  was  an  important  figure  in  the  literary  life  of 
the  time. 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  V 

Of  his  prose  tales,  "The  Black  Cat,"  "The  Gold  Bug," 
"The  Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue,"  are  the  most  widely 
known.  They  have  been  translated  into  several  European 
languages.  Of  his  poems,  "The  Raven,"  "The  Bells,"  and 
"Annabel  Lee,"  are  familiar  in  every  household. 

Nathaniel  Parker  Willis  was  a  contemporary  and  a  friend  of 
Poe,  and  was  engaged  with  him  for  a  short  time  in  editing  a 
magazine,  "The  Mirror."  Willis,  like  Poe,  wrote  both  prose 
and  poetry.  "Absalom,"  "Jephthah's  Daughter,"  and  some 
other  poems  on  Bible  subjects  were  once  popular. 

The  Golden  Age.  —  In  different  states  and  at  about  the  same 
time  —  there  being  not  more  than  six  years  from  the  birth  of 
the  oldest  to  that  of  the  youngest  —  and  about  a  decade  after 
Bryant's  birth,  five  writers  who  have  produced  the  great  body 
of  our  pure  literature  and  have  raised  it  to  its  highest  mark  of 
renown,  were  born  into  the  world.  These  writers  are  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  Henry  Wadsworth  Long- 
fellow, John  Grecnlcaf  Whittier,  and  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 
Fortune  often  threw  these  writers  together.  They  were 
strong  personal  friends  and  all  friends  of  Bryant,  and  they 
encouraged  and  applauded  each  other's  work.  They  differ 
essentially  in  their  several  writings.  Emerson  was  a  sage 
devoted  to  plain  living  and  high  thinking  ;  Hawthorne  was  one 
of  the  world's  greatest  romancers  ;  Longfellow  was  a  singer 
who  loved  the  sweet  and  joyous  of  life  ;  Whittier  was  by  turns 
a  crusader  and  a  pastoral  poet ;  Holmes  was  a  humorist  and  a 
satirist.  When  these  writers  were  in  the  fullness  of  their 
powers  and  their  genius  most  creative,  then,  beyond  question, 
was  the  Golden  Age  of  American  letters.  There  have  been 
great  achievements  since  their  time,  but  the  literary  heavens 
have  never  been  bright  with  stars  since  their  lights  were 
dimmed. 


APPENDIX    A. 


The  Sage  of  Concord.  —  Emerson  (1803-1882)  was  born  in 
Boston.  He  was  well  taught  at  home  when  a  boy,  but  at 
fourteen  he  entered  Harvard  College.  He  studied  theology 
and  became  a  minister,  with  a  charge  in  Boston.  He  soon 
gave  up  preaching  and  removed  to  Concord,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  devoted  his  time  to  writing  and 

lecturing.  He  delivered 
lectures  in  most  of  the 
cities  of  the  east,  and  in 
many  of  them  he  lectured 
several  times.  He  was  the 
first  to  show  to  Americans 
the  possibilities  and  the 
importance  of  the  lecture 
platform.  His  prose  writ- 
ings are  in  the  form  of 
essays.  His  first  book, 
"  Nature  "  (1839),  created 
a  deep  impression,  and 
heralded  a  new  and  strong 
literary  light.  His  works 
include  "  Representative 
Men  "  (1850),  "  English 
Traits "  (1856),  "  The 
Conduct  of  Life"  (1860),  a  volume  of  poems,  etc.  His  poems  are 
of  the  philosophic  type,  but  his  "  Concord  Hymn,"  referring  to  the 
Revolutionary  battle  at  Concord  Bridge,  won  a  popular  success. 
Emerson  had  a  great  influence  upon  the  thought  of  his  time. 
There  were  a  number  of  writers  who  made  his  works  their 
chief  study,  and  were  proud  to  call  themselves  his  disciples. 
H.  D.  Tkoreau  was  one  of  these  disciples.  For  a  time  he 
lived  alone  in  a  cabin  in  the  forest  studying  and  writing  about 
nature.  Margaret  Fuller  and  A,  B.  Alcott  were  other  writers 
who  were  followers  of  Emerson,  but  their  literary  merit  is  small. 


Ralph  Waldo  Er 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  Vll 

The  Great  Romancer.  —  Hawthorne  (1804-1864)  was  born 
in  Salem,  Mass.  He  was  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College. 
He  was  much  alone  in  his  boyhood  and  youth,  and  the  solitude 
seemed  to  suit  him.  He  began  writing  early,  but  received 
little  encouragement  from  the  public.  To  use  his  own  expres- 
sion he  "  was  for  years  the  obscurest  man  of  letters  in  America." 
The  historian  Bancroft, 
collector  of  the  port  of 

• 

Boston,  appointed  Haw-  | 
thorne  to  a  minor  position  * 
in  the  service.  Later, 
Hawthorne  became  sur- 
veyor at  the  Salem  Cus- 
tom House.  When  his 
schoolmate  and  friend, 
Franklin  Pierce,  became 
president,  he  was  ap- 
pointed consul  to  Liver- 
pool. He  spent  several 
years  abroad  in  England 
and  in  Italy.  He  re- 
turned to  America  in 
1860,  and  took  up  re- 
sidence in  Concord. 
Hawthorne's  first  suc- 
cess was  gained  with 
"The  Scarlet  Letter"  (1850).  although  he  had  previously 
published  "Twice-Told  Tales"  (1837)  and  "Mosses  from 
an  Old  Manse"  (1846).  "The  Blithedale  Romance"  (1852) 
and  "The  Marble  Faun"  are  later  romances,  published 
during  his  life.  After  his  death,  several  studies  for  romances 
were  published.  His  "English  Note  Book,"  "Italian  Note 
Book,"  and  "  Our  Old  Home  "  are  records  of  his  observations 
abroad. 


APPENDIX    A. 


He  was  a  master  of  pure,  simple  English, 
greatest  imaginative  writer. 


He  is  America's 


The  Singer.  —  Longfellow  (1807-1882)  was  born  in  Maine. 
He  attended  school  at  Bowdoin  College,  where  he  and  Haw- 
thorne were  friends  and 
classmates.  After  some 
years  of  study  abroad, 
he  became  a  professor 
in  Bowdoin.  From  1835 
to  1854  he  was  professor 
of  Modern  Languages  in 
Harvard  College.  The 
termination  of  his  pro- 
fessorship did  not  ter- 
minate his  residence  in 
Cambridge.  For  nearly 
fifty  years,  till  his  death, 
the  house  Washington 
had  occupied  as  head- 
quarters was  his  home. 
He  lived  a  quiet,  un- 
eventful life,  brightened 
often  by  trips  to  Europe. 
His  correct  and  peaceful  life  is  reflected  in  his  poetry.  He 
writes  of  the  affections,  and  he  expresses  refined  sentiments ; 
he  touches  the  heart  with  pathetic  incidents ;  he  gently  urges 
us  to  the  better  life.  His  verse  is  always  smooth  and 
musical. 

Many  of  his  poems  attest  his  love  for  children.  The  long 
poem,  "  Evangeline,"  founded  upon  the  forcible  removal  of  the 
Acadians,  is  a  classic  in  our  language.  The  story  is  a  touching 
one,  and  the  treatment  is  musical  and  appropriate.  "  Hiawatha  " 
is,  perhaps,  the  poet's  best  work.  Its  noble  conception  is 


Henry  W.    Longfellow. 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE. 


entirely  original.     The  form  of  the  verse  is  also  original,  and 

is  admirably  adapted  to  its  use.     The  poem  presents  the  ideal 

of  Indian  life.  The  author  translated  Dante's  "  Divine 
Comedy,"  spending  some  years  upon  it. 

The  Crusader.  —  Whittier  (1807-1892)  was  a  New  England 
boy,  born  on  a  farm  in  Massachusetts.     He  was  familiar  with 
poverty    and    hard   work.  -  - 
He  had  access  to  but  few  ;/ 
books,    and    he    received 
but  a  poor  education. 
But,  with  the  chances  all    ' 
against  him,  he  became  a) 
famous  poet.     A  copy  of  | 
the  poems  of  Burns  which  \ 
fell  into  his   hands   keptj 
the    poetic   fire    alight. ! 
His    first    printed    poem 
appeared  in  a  local  paper 
—  a  paper  that  has  since 
become   historic.      The 
editor,    interested    in    the 
poem,  sought  the  acquain- 
tantfe    of    the    poet.      He 
found  a  youth   ploughing 
in  the  field.    The  acquain- 

junn    oreiMiiucii     YTMIIIICI. 

tance    so    begun    ripened 

into  friendship.  The  editor,  Garrison,  was  an  ardent  advocate 
of  the  abolition  of  slavery.  Whittier  adopted  the  same  views, 
and  in  subsequent  years  edited  or  helped  to  edit  several  of  the 
abolition  papers.  In  his  youth  he  had  supported  himself  by 
teaching  school  or  by  making  shoes,  but  his  reputation  grew, 
so  that  subsequent  to  the  War  he  was  able  to  support  himself 
with  his  pen. 


APPENDIX    A. 


Whittier  believed  in  the  extreme  theories  of  the  Abolitionists. 
Most  of  his  early  poetry  was  written  to  further  the  cause  of 
emancipation.  He  was  willing  to  sacrifice  beauty  of  composi- 
tion to  the  needs  of  the  cause,  and  often  did  so.  "  Voices  of 
Freedom"  and  "In  War  Time"  belong  to  this  early  poetry 
written  in  advocacy  of  freedom  for  the  slave. 

After  the  war  was  over  and  the  negroes  were  freed,  Whittier 
became  the  poet  of  peaceful,  happy,  rural  life.  "  Snow- Bound  " 
(1866)  is  one  of  the  most  nearly  perfect  idylls  in  our  literature. 
"  The  Tent  on  the  Beach,"  "  Among  the  Hills,"  and  many 
other  poems  reflect  the  same  love  for  the  simple,  serene,  isolated 
life  of  the  New  England  people  of  some  years  ago. 

The  Humorist. — Dr.  Holmes  (1809-1894)  was  born  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard,  with 

•  first    honors,    in    his 
twentieth  year.     He  be- 

f^Ml^l  gan    the    study    of    law, 

but  abandoned  it  for 
medicine.  He  spent 
three  years  abroad  study- 
ing anatomy.  In  1836 
he  was  appointed  to  a 
professorship  in  Dart- 
mouth Medical  School. 
He  removed  to  Boston 
in  1840 ;  he  made  this 
city  his  home  for  more 
than  fifty  years.  In  1847 
he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and 
physiology  in  the  Har- 
vard Medical  School. 
Oliver  wendeii  Holmes.  He  wrote  many  articles 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  xi 

on  subjects  connected  with  his  profession  and  was  an  authority 
in  it.  But  most  of  his  writings  are  of  an  entirely  different  kind. 
He  wrote  a  large  volume  of  poems,  two  novels,  "  Elsie  Ven- 
ner,"  and  "The  Guardian  Angel,"  "The  Autocrat"  series, — 
running  comments  upon  a  variety  of  topics,  —  consisting  of 
"  The  Autocrat  at  the  Breakfast  Table,"  "  The  Professor  at  the 
Breakfast  Table,"  and  "The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast  Table." 
He  is  the  author  of  two  or  three  of  our  most  celebrated 
humorous  poems  and  of  many  that  rank  second  only  to  his 
own  best.  "The  Wonderful  One-Hoss  Shay,"  "How  the  Old 
Horse  won  the  Bet,"  "The  Hot  Season,"  "The  Comet"  are 
among  these  humorous  poems.  But  he  has  serious  and 
pathetic  poems  as  well.  "  The  Last  Leaf "  and  "  The  Cham- 
bered Nautilus  "  are  beautiful  in  sentiment  and  perfect  in  work- 
manship. He  was  an  extremely  patriotic  American,  and  a 
large  number  of  his  poems  were  written  in  celebration  of 
national  holidays,  ceremonies,  or  events.  "  Old  Ironsides," 
the  first  of  his  poems  to  gain  wide  popularity,  saved  the  ship 
Constitution  from  destruction  by  the  government. 

Our  Representative  Man  of  Letters.  —James  Russell  Lowell 
(1819-1891)  was  born  in  Cambridge  ten  years  after  the  birth 
of  Holmes,  twelve  years  after  the  birth  of  Longfellow.  He 
was  fifteen  years  younger  than  Hawthorne,  sixteen  years 
younger  than  Emerson,  twenty-five  years  younger  than  Bryant. 
He  was,  therefore,  near  to  the  first  great  group  of  writers,  but 
not  of  it.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1838.  When 
Longfellow  resigned  his  professorship  in  Harvard  (1855)  Lowell 
was  chosen  to  fill  it.  He  was  the  first  editor  of  the  "  Atlantic 
Monthly,"  his  connection  with  it  lasting  from  1852  to  1862.  For 
nearly  ten  years  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  North  Ameri- 
can Review."  From  1877  to  1880  he  represented  the  United 
States  at  the  court  of  Spain.  In  1880  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  England;  he  held  the  position  for  five  years. 


APPENDIX    A. 


He  was  an  eloquent  advocate  of  the  emancipation  of  the 
slaves,  and  some  of  his  short  poems  and  the  "  Biglow  Papers  " 

advocated  this  cause. 
But  only  a  small  part 
of  his  poetry  is  argu- 
mentative.  "The 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  " 
is  an  imaginative  treat- 
ment of  an  old  subject. 
The  "Fable  for  Critics" 
reviews  in  racy  verse 
the  work  of  the  promi- 
nent authors  of  its  day. 
"  The  Cathedral  "  is  a 
noble  discussion  of 
modern  problems.  But 
not  all  of  his  poems 
can  be  named ;  there 
are  other  long  poems 
and  many  short  ones. 
Lowell  was  also  a 
critic  of  great  ability, 
and  has  printed  valuable  studies  of  some  of  the  world's 
great  authors.  He  has  written  delightful  essays  on  various 
subjects. 

Because  of  the  high  public  position  he  has  held  and  honored 
and  of  the  breadth  and  quality  of  his  literary  work  he  is,  per- 
haps, our  most  representative  author. 

The  Historians.  —  America  has  been  too  busy  making 
history  to  write  much  of  it,  still  we  have  something  to  show. 
George  Bancroft's  "  History  of  the  United  States  "  is  the  best 
that  has  been  written  of  the  colonial  development  of  our 
country.  It  shows  the  origin  and  the  working  of  the  forces 


James   Russell    Lowell 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  xiii 

that  have  made  us  the  nation  that  we  are.  It  reaches  only  to 
the  Constitutional  period.  It  is  conscientious,  fair,  and  broad. 
Francis  Parkman  wrote  charming  accounts  of  the  explora- 
tion and  settlement  of  the  Mississippi  region.  Professor 
John  Bach  McMaster  has  begun  a  "  History  of  the  People 
of  the  United  States "  at  the  point  where  Bancroft  dropped 
his.  A  number  of  writers  on  the  Civil  War  have  put 
forth  pamphlets  or  ambitious  volumes.  Horace  Greeley's 
"  Great  American  Conflict "  is  a  notable  contribution  to  the 
anti-slavery  view  of  it.  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  in  "  The  War 
between  the  States"  discusses  the  same  subject  from  the 
states'  rights  point  of  view.  Jefferson  Davis,  in  his  "  Rise  and 
Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government,"  gives  a  full  account  of 
the  great  events  in  which  he  played  such  a  conspicuous  part. 
W.  H.  Prescott,  in  the  "  Conquest  of  Mexico  "  and  the  "  Con- 
quest of  Peru  "  turns  the  attention  of  Americans  to  some  of 
the  earliest  European  interferences  with  political  affairs  on  this 
hemisphere.  John  Lothrop  Motley,  from  the  vantage-ground  of 
free  America,  writes  histories  of  magnificent  struggles  for  free- 
dom in  "  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  "  and  "  The  History 
of  the  United  Netherlands." 

The  Later  Literature  of  the  East.  —  Our  later  literature 
has  not  shown  the  power  of  the  literature  of  the  time  already 
portrayed.  There  has  been  much  more  writing,  and  much 
effort  has  been  expended  in  developing  new  forms  and  in 
adapting  old  ones,  but  recently  there  has  been  no  author  whose 
writings  showed  the  solid  worth  of  the  great  authors  of  our 
first  golden  days.  In  the  East  Bayard  Taylor  (1825-1878) 
shows  the  best  achievement  for  this  period.  He  is  the  author 
of  several  very  interesting  books  of  travel.  After  walking 
through  the  most  interesting  countries  of  Europe  he  wrote 
"Views  Afoot."  He  visited  nearly  every  inhabited  part  of  the 
globe  and  wrote  books  about  what  he  saw. 


XIV  APPENDIX    A. 

Of  his  novels  "Hannah  Thurston "  and  "The  Story  of 
Kennett  "  may  be  mentioned. 

But  it  was  in  poetry  that  Taylor  was  most  ambitious.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  large  volume  of  poetry  and  of  a  volume  of 
"  Dramatic  Works."  Some  of  his  short  poems  —  notably 
"  Amran's  Wooing  "  and  the  "  Bedouin  Love  Song  "  —  are 
strong  in  feeling  and  of  exquisite  workmanship.  Many  of  his 
longer  poems  are  rich  in  lyrical  passages,  and  they  show  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  poetical  forms  ;  but  they  often  lack 
the  complete  majesty  of  the  theme  upon  which  they  are  written. 
Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  is  the  most  exquisite  of  our  lyric  poets. 
His  verse  is  of  the  simple  and  apparently  spontaneous  kind 
that  requires  so  much  art  in  the  writing  and  reads  so  easily 
and  musically  that  it  sings  itself  into  the  memory  at  once. 
"  Baby  Bell,"  a  touching  account  of  the  death  of  a  little  girl, 
has  secured  a  permanent  place  in  our  literature.  "  The  Story 
of  a  Bad  Boy  "  describes  in  prose  mischievous  juvenile  pranks 
highly  interesting  to  boys  both  young  and  old. 

But  the  largest  part  of  the  writing  of  this  time  is  fiction. 
Novels  with  all  sorts  of  themes  from  all  sorts  of  people  are 
being  continually  issued.  Even  schisms  have  arisen,  and 
writers  profess  themselves  of  this  or  that  school.  Of  the  so- 
called  "realists,"  Henry  James  and  W.  D.  Howells  are  the 
chief  American  representatives. 

The  novels  of  Henry  James  are  used  largely  to  contrast 
national  customs.  "  The  American,"  "  The  Europeans," 
"  Daisy  Miller "  are  of  this  international  type,  —  a  class  of 
novels  for  which  James  himself  in  these  very  books  set  the 
model.  "The  Portrait  of  a  Lady,"  "The  Bostonians," 
"  Princess  Cassamassia  "  incidentally  depict  national  peculiar- 
ities, but  their  chief  force  is  spent  upon  the  analysis  of 
character.  His  novels  seldom  have  a  plot  and  they  often  end 
in  what  seems  to  be  the  middle  of  the  story.  The  interest  of  his 
work  lies  in  the  bright,  witty  dialogue  and  'in  the  keen,  subtle 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE. 


dissection  of  motive.  The  author  is  a  literary  critic  who 
speaks  from  wide  culture,  and  with  great  power  of  discrimina- 
tion and  rare  delicacy  of  statement.  His  "  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne," in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series,  is  a  sympathetic 
study  of  our  great  romancer. 

Mr.  Howells  was  born  in  Ohi®  of  poor  but  ambitious 
parents.  He  learned  to  set  type  and  helped  to  "  edit "  a 
country  newspaper.  His 
boyhood  was  spent  in 
hard  work.  In  a  series  of 
articles  recently  printed, 
entitled  "A  Boy's  Town," 
one  may  learu  of  these 
early  experiences.  From 
newspaper  work  he  under- 
took magazine  sketches, 
and  finally  he  became  a 
novelist.  He  was  for 
years  editor  of  the  "At- 
lantic Monthly."  Later 
he  edited  a  department 
of  literary  criticism  in 
"Harper's  Monthly." 
He  is  thoroughly  identi- 
fied with  America,  and 

nearly  all  of  his  novels  are  studies  of  American  life.  "The 
Lady  of  the  Aroostook,"  "A  Modern  Instance,"  "Dr.  Breen's 
Practice,"  "  The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham "  are  among  his  best 
stories.  He  is  the  author  of  several  bright  comedies  and 
farces,  such  as  "  The  Mouse  Trap,"  "  The  Garroters,"  "  The 
Counterfeit  Presentment." 

Julian  Hawthorne's  views  of  fiction  are  very  different  from 
those  held  by  the  "realists."  He  seeks  to  set  before  us 
stirring  examples  that  shall  spur  us  to  higher  endeavor.  He  is 


W.   D.   Howells. 


XVI  APPENDIX    A. 

willing  to  tell  us  a  story  that  has  a  beginning  and  an  end.  He 
tries  to  portray  our  highest  inner  nature.  In  working  to  this 
end  he  ignores  the  conventional,  every-day  acts  which  are 
common  to  all  men  and  do  not,  therefore,  reveal  character. 
He  seeks  rather  to  try  his  men  and  women  by  crucial  tests. 
Therefore  his  plots  involye  great  crimes,  profound  expiation, 
glorious  moral  victory,  deep  condemnation.  "  Bressant," 
"Idolatry,"  "Sebastian  Strome,"  "Fortune's  Fool,"  "Sinfire" 
are  novels  that  reveal  the  soul  of  man  in  tragic  situations. 

F.  Marion  Crawford  may  be  classed  with  the  "  Romantic  " 
school.  He  is  not  above  telling  a  good  old-fashioned  love 
story.  His  heroes  are  noble  chivalrous  men,  his  heroines  are 
lovely  women ;  and  sooner  or  later,  whatever  the  vicissitudes 
along  the  way,  the  knight  wins  the  lady  and  the  couple  are 
happy  ever  afterward.  "Mr.  Isaacs,"  "  Saracenesca,"  "The 
Roman  Singer  "  are  three  popular  books  from  his  long  list  of 
popular  books. 

Though  Frank  R.  Stockton  imitates  the  plausible  manner  of 
the  Realists  he  imagines  plots  that  are  far  removed  from  daily 
experience.  In  "  Negative  Gravity  "  he  suspends  a  man  evenly 
balanced  in  mid  air.  In  "  The  Transferred  Ghost "  a  spirit 
comes  back  to  earth  and  plays  a  lively  part  in  the  love- 
experiences  of  two  people.  In  another  story  a  spirit  is  brought 
to  earth  and  embodied  in  a  young  man,  and  after  that  it  is  dis- 
embodied or  reembodied  at  will.  The  author  has  written 
several  charming  stories  for  children. 

The  Beginning  in  the  West.  —  The  West  was  necessarily 
late  in  adding  anything  to  our  literature  ;  but  its  beginning, 
when  at  last  the  hour  arrived,  was  notable.  Its  first  authors 
extended  their  local  reputations  to  the  East,  and,  for  various 
reasons,  are  conspicuous  among  the  American  authors  known 
in  Europe.  The  West  possesses  a  worthy  poet  in  Joaquin 
Miller.  He  loves  her  vast  solitudes,  her  virgin  forests,  her 


AN    OUTLINE    OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE.  Xvii 

rugged  sierras  ;  he  professes  himself,  and  is,  indeed,  a  sym- 
pathetic child  of  this  wild  region.  His  poems  express  fire  and 
passion,  and  unbounded  self-confidence  ;  they  show  a  free  spirit 
untrammeled  by  convention  or  tradition.  They  are  musical 
and  eloquent,  often  dramatic. 

Bret  Harte  shares  with  Miller  the  honor  and  the  profit  of 
revealing  the  West  to  the  East.  He  spent  some  time  on  the 
Pacific  slope  in  the  years  when  mining  for  precious  metals  was 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  people.  His  sketches  of  the  wild 
life  of  this  region  at  this  time  are  among  the  most  entertaining 
short  stories  in  the  language.  "How  Santa  Claus  came  to 
Simpson's  Bar "  tells  how  the  rude  miners  were  touched  by  a 
child's  pathetic  reference  to  Christmas  and  Santa  Claus.  "The 
Luck  of  Roaring  Camp "  was  a  baby,  and  the  interest  the 
miners  felt  in  it  was  the  cause  of  the  reformation  of  the  camp. 
Gamblers,  stage-drivers,  saloon-keepers,  parsons,  miners  play 
picturesque  parts  in  his  stories.  He  has  written  some  long 
stories,  but  was  not  successful  with  them. 

Mark  Twain  is  the  humorist  of  this  region.  In  "  Roughing 
It "  and  in  several  short  sketches  he  has  shown  the  laughable 
side  of  the  prospector's  life.  But  the  West  is  not  his  only  field. 
"The  Innocents  Abroad,"  a  story  of  a  trip  through  Europe, 
made  the  author's  reputation,  and  nothing  he  has  written  has 
surpassed  it. 

Edward  Eggleston,  in  his  "  Hoosier  Schoolmaster,"  "The 
Circuit  Rider,"  "  Roxy,"  etc.,  gives  us  a  portrayal  of  pioneer 
life  in  Indiana  and  Illinois  that  is  faithful  to  the  minutest  detail. 
He  has  also  written  several  books  that  are  favorites  with  young 
people. 

The  Renewal  in  the  South.  —  The  first  poet  in  the  South 
in  point  of  time  and  in  fame  is  Poe,  already  noticed.  Con- 
temporary with  him,  and  living  many  years  after  his  death, 
was  the  South's  most  assiduous  man  of  letters  in  the  period 


APPENDIX    A. 


preceding  the  War ;  namely,  William  Gilmore  Simms.  He 
edited  Shakespeare,  printed  political  articles,  prepared  histories, 
biographies,  and  criticisms,  and  wrote  a  number  of  novels  of 
adventure  with  the  scenes  laid  in  the  Southern  states  and  the 
motives  founded  on  the  traditions  or  history  of  the  same  region. 
John  Esten  Cooke,  in  Virginia,  published  before  the  War  "  The 
Virginia  Comedians,"  a  novel  depicting  the  ante-bellum  life  of 
the  Southern  planter.  Henry  Timrod,  a  South  Carolina  poet 
who  wrote  warm,  vivid  verse,  contributed  to  the  Southern 
Literary  Messenger,  of  which  Poe  was,  at  one  time,  editor. 
With  the  exception  of  the  pathetic  poems  of  Father  Ryan,  the 
Laureate  of  the  Lost  Cause,  and  occasional  war  lyrics  from 
Paul  Hamilton  Hayne,  who  had  previously  published  some  noble 

poems,  and  Cooke's 
account  of  the  great 
struggle,  the  War  silenced 
all  voices  in  the  South. 
The  singer  was  too  sad 
to  sing ;  the  dramatist, 
torn  and  bleeding,  had 
no  heart  for  mimic  tra- 
gedy ;  the  novelist  was 
overwhelmed  with  a 
calamity  in  real  life. 
But  the  South  is  full  of 
color ;  it  is  bright  with  a 
charming  colonial  his- 
tory; it  is  peopled  with 
the  descendants  of 
picturesque  races ;  elo- 
quence and  poetry  are 
natural. to  it:  in  the  full- 
ness of  time  this  desolated  Eden  began  to  blossom  again. 


Sidney   Lanier 


By  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


AN    OUTLINE  OF    AMERICAN    LITERATURE. 


XIX 


The  greatest  poet  in  the  South  in  recent  years,  and  one  of 
the  most  original  America  has  produced,  is  the  Georgia  poet, 
Sidney  Lanier.  He  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  structure 
of  English  verse,  and  elaborated  a  new  theory  as  to  its  con- 
struction. He  was  a  critic  who  applied  fundamental  tests  with 
great  keenness.  No  American  poet  has  excelled  him  in  melody, 
—  comparing  total  products,  no  one  has  equalled  him.  His 
"  Song  of  the  Chattahoochie "  is  as  musical  as  Tennyson's 
"  Brook."  Many  English  critics  think  him  our  greatest  artist ; 
his  own  countrymen  —  except  here  and  there  —  have  not  found 
him  out  yet ;  but  his  day  will  come.  Still  younger  poets  are 
Willie  Hayne,  Madison  Cawein,  and  Robert  Burns  Wilson,  who 
are  just  beginning  to  try  their  voices. 

In  fiction  some  strong  work  is  being  done.  Thomas  Nelson 
Page  is  in  this  day  the  South's  best  representative  man  of 
letters.  His  "Marse 
Chan  "  and  "  Meh  Lady  " 
are  two  of  the  strongest 
short  stories  of  recent 
years.  He  has  written 
numbers  of  others 
("Elsket,"  "Polly,"  "Ole 
Stracted,"  etc.)  not  quite 
so  good  as  these,  perhaps, 
but  very  good  indeed. 
Many  of  these  stories  are 
told  in  negro  dialect ;  all 
of  them  are  stories  of 
Southern  life.  His  vol- 
ume "  The  Old  South  "  is 
a  collection  of  studies  of 
the  conditions  of  life  in 
"  Old  Virginia  "  and  of  the  Thomas  Nalson  Pase-' 

1  By  permission  of  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


XX  APPENDIX    A. 

problems  of  the  present  day.  James  Lane  Allen  in  "  Flute  and 
Violin  "  has  given  us  a  collection  of  short  stories  that  deal  in  a 
poetic  way  with  pathetic  themes.  His  "Blue  Grass  Region" 
is  an  interesting  account  of  the  methods  of  life  of  his  native 
state.  George  W.  Cable  in  "The  Grandissimes,"  "Bonaventure," 
"Old  Creole  Days,"  etc.,  presents  studies  of  some  Southern 
subjects.  "In  the  Tennessee  Mountains,"  "Down  Lost  Creek," 
"The  Ha'nt  that  Walks  Chilhowee"  are  intense  tragedies  of  the 
simple  but  passionate  mountaineers  of  Tennessee.  They  are 
written  by  Miss  Murfree,  who  gained  her  fame  under  the  pseu- 
donym of  Charles  Egbert  Craddock.  Joel  Chandler  Harris  finds 
some  recompense  for  the  negro,  who  has  cost  the  South  so 
much,  in  the  fables  that  spring  from  his  simple,  credulous,  and 
sometimes  poetic  imagination.  His  "Uncle  Remus"  has  been 
read  by  young  people  and  by  old  people  with  young  hearts,  all 
over  the  land. 


APPENDIX    B. 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES. 


COLONIAL  ERA. 

BERKELEY,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1610-1677).  —  Governor  of  Virginia  Colony 
for  twenty-seven  years ;  highly  educated,  handsome,  of  polished  manner 
and  exquisite  dress,  he  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  cavaliers  of  the 
day.  He  began  his  rule  by  adopting  most  salutary  measures,  and  was 
popular  with  the  people.  During  Cromwell's  ascendancy  Berkeley  offered 
an  asylum  in  Virginia  to  the  English  Royalists,  and  Virginia  was  the  last 
country  belonging  to  England  that  submitted  to  Cromwell's  authority. 
On  the  death  of  Cromwell's  governor  of  Virginia,  the  Assembly  recalled 
Berkeley,  who  had  retired  to  his  plantation.  Sir  William  forthwith  pro- 
claimed Charles  II.,  then  in  exile,  "  King  of  England,  Scotland,  France, 
Ireland,  and  Virginia."  As  he  advanced  in  years  Berkeley  grew  tyrannical. 
He  persecuted  the  Puritans,  opposed  popular  education,  was  indifferent  in 
dealing  with  hostile  Indians  (see  §§  94  and  230).  When  he  was  recalled 
by  the  king,  the  colonists  fired  guns  and  lighted  bonfires  in  token  of  their 
joy.  The  old  man  died,  it  is  said,  of  grief  and  wounded  pride  a  short  time 
after  his  return  to  England. 

EDWARDS,  JONATHAN  (1703-1758).  —  New  England  theologian  and 
metaphysician.  Entering  Yale  College  at  twelve,  he  was  graduated  at  six- 
teen. He  began  preaching  to  a  Presbyterian  congregation  in  New  York ; 
was  soon  afterward  called  to  the  church  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  where  he 
remained  for  twenty-three  years,  acquiring  fame  throughout  New  England 
as  a  preacher.  Compelled  to  resign  his  pastorate  on  account  of  his  views 
on  church  government,  he  became  a  missionary  to  the  Indians.  In  his 
retirement  among  the  savages  he  produced  his  work  on  "  The  Freedom  of 
the  Will,"  considered  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  efforts  of  the  human  mind, 


Xxii  APPENDIX    B. 

whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  conclusions  reached.  He  was  elected 
President  of  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  but  died  a  short  time  after  his 
inauguration. 

PENN,  WILLIAM  (1644-1718).  — Founder  of  Pennsylvania.  When  a 
student  at  Oxford  he  became  a  Quaker  and  withdrew  from  the  Established 
Church.  He  and  his  friends  refused  to  wear  the  student's  gown,  and  tore 
it  away  from  those  who  did.  He  was  expelled  from  the  University.  His 
father  treated  him  with  great  severity,  but  finally  agreed  to  tolerate  all  his 
Quaker  views,  provided  he  would  take  off  his  hat  before  the  king,  the 
Duke  of  York,  and  himself.  On  young  Penn's  refusal,  his  father  turned 
him  out  of  the  house,  but  his  mother  kept  him  supplied  with  money.  He 
became  a  Quaker  preacher,  and  was  several  times  arrested  and  imprisoned. 
Nevertheless,  he  was  an  accomplished  courtier,  and  he  obtained  from 
Charles  II.,  as  a  refuge  for  his  brethren,  a  tract  of  40,000  square  miles  in 
America  in  payment  of  a  debt  of  $80,000  due  his  father.  He  founded 
Philadelphia  and  governed  his  colony  in  person  from  1682  to  1684.  He 
made  a  famous  treaty  with  the  Indians,  "  the  only  treaty  which  was  never 
sworn  to  and  never  broken."  Because  of  his  personal  friendship  for  the 
banished  king,  James  II.,  he  was  accused  of  treason.  He  was  imprisoned 
and  his  proprietary  rights  were  taken  away,  but  these  were  afterwards 
restored.  He  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-four. 

RALEIGH,  SIR  WALTER  (1552-1618).  —  English  courtier  and  navigator, 
whose  efforts  at  colonization  led  to  the  founding  of  Virginia.  When  seven- 
teen years  of  age  he  left  college  to  become  a  soldier  on  the  continent  of 
Europe;  returning  to  England,  he  became  interested  in  the  colonizing 
schemes  of  his  half-brother,  Humphrey  Gilbert.  He  won  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's favor  by  spreading  his  scarlet  cloak  over  a  muddy  place  for  the  queen 
to  walk  upon.  He  obtained  a  charter  for  forming  settlements  in  the  region 
now  included  in  Virginia,  and  secured  in  his  charter  the  provision  that  the 
settlers  should  have  all  the  rights  of  Engliskmen,  and  should  be  governed 
by  laws  made  by  themselves  so  long  as  they  conformed  to  the  laws  of 
England.  This  grant  of  rights  was  renewed  in  subsequent  charters  of 
Virginia,  and  was  the  foundation  of  colonial  resistance  to  British  oppres- 
sion. The  death  of  Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  fatal  blow  to  Raleigh's  for- 
tunes. On  a  false  charge  of  treason  he  was  imprisoned  for  thirteen  years 
and  finally  executed. 

WILLIAMS,  ROGER  (1606-1683). —  Founder  and  governor  of  Rhode 
Island.  Born  in  Wales  ;  upon  his  graduation  from  college  he  became  a 
minister  of  the  Church  of  England.  Soon  afterward,  imbibing  dissenting 
views,  he  came  to  Massachusetts  as  an  extreme  Puritan,  and  later  became 
a  Separatist.  His  teaching  that  the  king  had  no  right  to  grant  to  settlers 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES.  Xxiii 

the  land  of  the  Indians  without  purchasing  it  and  that  the  magistrates 
should  not  interfere  in  matters  of  religious  belief  led  to  his  banishment 
from  the  Massachusetts  Colony.  Williams  then  founded  the  Colony  of 
Rhode  Island.  At  Providence  he  established  the  first  Baptist  Church  in 
America.  He  afterwards  withdrew  from  the  church  and  never  reentered 
it.  His  great  influence  with  the  Indians  was  the  means  of  saving  the  New 
England  settlements  from  destruction.  In  the  midst  of  a  persecuting  age 
and  people,  he  established  the  principle  of  complete  religious  freedom. 


ERA  OF  REVOLUTION. 

FRANKLIN,  BENJAMIN  (1706-1790).  —  Philosopher  and  statesman.  He 
was  born  in  Boston,  the  youngest  son  of  a  family  of  seventeen  children. 
He  ran  away  from  his  elder  brother,  to  whom  he  had  been  apprenticed  as 
printer,  and  arrived  in  Philadelphia  with  one  dollar  in  his  pocket.  He 
soon  found  employment  as  a  printer.  After  visiting  England  he  finally 
established  himself  in  Philadelphia  as  editor  of  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette. 
His  "Almanac  "  became  famous  throughout  the  world.  In  1754  Franklin 
proposed  a  plan  of  union  for  the  colonies  which  was  adopted  by  the 
Albany  Congress  (composed  of  the  delegates  from  seven  of  the  colonies), 
but  which  failed  of  ratification  by  the  colonial  assemblies.  He  was  one  of 
the  Committee  of  Congress  to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Ambassador  to  France  during  the  Revolution,  he  did  much  to  secure  for 
us  the  aid  of  the  French  government.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mission that  framed  the  treaty  of  peace  with  England,  and  of  the  Conven- 
tion that  drew  up  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  He  invented  a 
stove  with  an  open  front,  known  as  the  Franklin  stove.  His  experiments 
with  a  kite  in  a  thunderstorm  led  to  the  discovery  that  lightning  and  elec- 
tricity are  the  same,  and  to  the  invention  of  the  lightning  rod. 

HENRY,  PATRICK  (1736-1799).  —  Orator  and  statesman  of  Virginia. 
Having  tried  farming  and  merchandising  without  success,  he  became  a 
lawyer.  His  eloquence  in  the  "  Parsons  Case  "  first  made  him  prominent. 
Elected  to  the  Virginia  Assembly,  he  secured  the  passage  of  the  famous 
resolution  of  resistance  to  the  Stamp  Act.  As  a  member  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  he  was  recognized  as  the  foremost  orator  in  America.  His 
eloquence  secured  the  unanimous  passage  by  the  Virginia  Convention  of 
resolutions  directing  the  Virginia  delegates  in  Congress  to  move  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  colonies.  He  was  repeatedly  elected  governor  of  Virginia. 
He  opposed  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution,  declaring  that  that  docu- 
ment "  squinted  toward  monarchy."  He  was  offered  the  offices  of  Umte<J 


XXIV  APPENDIX    B. 

States  Senator,  Secretary  of  State  under  Washington,  and  Chief  Justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  but  the  state  of  his  health  compelled  him  to  decline 
them  all. 

LEE,  RICHARD  HENRY  (1732-1794).  — Statesman  of  Virginia.  Member 
of  the  Colonial  Assembly,  his  first  speech  was  in  opposition  to  the  slave 
trade.  He  was  active  in  opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act,  and  first  proposed 
the  intercolonial  "  Committees  of  Correspondence."  Member  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress,  he  moved  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Called 
home  by  the  illness  of  his  wife,  Jefferson  was  appointed  in  his  place  as 
chairman  of  the  committee  to  draw  up  the  Declaration.  Lee,  like  Patrick 
Henry,  opposed  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  chosen  one 
of  the  first  United  States  senators  from  Virginia,  and  proposed  the  Tenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution.  He  was  a  cousin  of  General  Henry  Lee, 
father  of  the  illustrious  Robert  E.  Lee. 

OTIS,  JAMES  (1725-1783).  —  Statesman  of  Massachusetts,  Advocate 
General  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts,  representative  in  the  Colonial 
Assembly,  delegate  to  the  Stamp  Act  Congress.  His  fiery  eloquence  in 
behalf  of  the  liberties  of  the  colonies  exerted  a  powerful  influence.  In 
1769  he  was  brutally  assaulted  by  several  British  officers  whom  he  had 
attacked  in  the  Boston  Gazette,  receiving  a  sword  cut  in  the  head  which 
impaired  his  reason,  and  from  the  effects  of  which  he  never  recovered.  His 
death  resulted  from  a  stroke  of  lightning. 

SEVIER,  JOHN  (1745-1815).  —  Pioneer,  born  in  Virginia;  a  noted 
Indian  fighter  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  He  moved  to  Watauga,  a  set- 
tlement on  the  western  slope  of  the  Alleghanies.  When  the  colony  became 
a  county  of  North  Carolina,  Sevier  was  elected  to  the  legislature.  He 
commanded  the  militia  in  many  Indian  fights,  and  with  Colonel  Shelby 
planned  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain.  For  his  part  in  this  battle  North 
Carolina  presented  him  with  a  sword  and  pistol.  He  was  governor  of  the 
short-lived  state  of  Franklin,  first  congressman  from  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  first  governor  of  the  state  of  Tennessee. 

ERA  OF  UNION  OF  THE  STATES. 

BOONE,  DANIEL  (1735-1820).  —  Pioneer  of  Kentucky.  Born  in  Penn- 
sylvania, reared  in  North  Carolina.  With  his  family  and  a  few  neighbors, 
in  1764  he  crossed  the  mountains  and  entered  what  was  then  the  unex- 
plored wilderness  of  Kentucky.  He  formed  a  settlement  on  the  bank  of 
the  Kentucky  River,  and  had  many  adventures  and  hairbreadth  escapes 
from  the  Indians.  After  Kentucky's  admission  to  the  Union  the  courts 
decided  Boone's  title  to  his  land  invalid.  He  then  removed  to  Missouri, 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES.  XXV 

where  Congress  made  him  a  grant  of  850  acres.  In  1845  tne  legislature  of 
Kentucky  had  the  remains  of  Boone  and  his  wife  removed  to  Frankfort. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  JOHN  C.  (1821-1875).  — Statesman  and  soldier ;  born 
in  Kentucky ;  served  in  the  Mexican  War  ;  member  of  the  Kentucky 
legislature  ;  representative  in  Congress  ;  Vice-President  under  Buchanan  ; 
candidate  of  the  Southern  Democrats  for  President,  1866  ;  United  States 
Senator  from  Kentucky  from  March,  1861,  until  he  entered  the  Confeder- 
ate army,  in  which,  as  Major-General,  he  served  with  distinction.  At  the 
time  of  Lee's  surrender  he  was  Secretary  of  War  of  the  Davis  Cabinet. 

CALHOUN,  JOHN  C.  (1782-1850). —  Statesman,  and  the  profoundest 
political  thinker  America  has  produced.  Born  in  South  Carolina  in  1782  ; 
was  graduated  with  honors  at  Yale;  entered  Congress  in  181  i.and  from  that 
time  until  his  death  in  1850  was  a  leading  figure  in  national  politics.  Was 
Secretary  of  War  under  Monroe  ;  Vice-President  under  John  Q.  Adams 
and  first  term  of  Jackson ;  Senator  from  South  Carolina  ;  Secretary  of 
State  during  the  latter  part  of  Tyler's  administration.  In  1845  ne  returned 
to  the  Senate,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Calhoun  was  the  ablest 
expounder  of  the  doctrine  of  State's  Rights.  Of  stainless  public  and  private 
life,  loved  by  his  friends,  idolized  by  his  state,  his  genius  was  admired  and 
his  character  respected  by  all  parties. 

CLAY,  HENRY  (1777-1852).  —  Statesman,  born  in  Virginia.  His  father, 
a  Baptist  preacher,  died  when  Henry  was  five  years  old  ;  at  fourteen  he 
became  a  copyist  in  a  law  office,  and  at  twenty  was  licensed  as  a  lawyer. 
He  removed  to  Kentucky,  where  he  at  once  rose  to  prominence.  He  was 
member  of  Congress  from  Kentucky  ;  Speaker  of  the  House  ;  Secretary  of 
State  ;  United  States  Senator,  and  leader  of  the  Whig  party.  An  elo- 
quent advocate  of  the  compromises  of  1820,  of  1832,  and  of  1850,  he  was 
known  as  "  The  Great  Pacificator."  He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  Presidency  in  1828  and  again  in  1844.  Clay  was  a  man  of  winning 
manner,  lofty  patriotism,  and  incorruptible  integrity. 

DOUGLAS,  STEPHEN  A.  (1813-1861).  —  Statesman,  born  in  Vermont. 
His  father  died  when  Stephen  was  an  infant.  In  boyhood  he  had  to 
struggle  for  a  living.  He  studied  law  and  moved  west,  settling  in  Illinois. 
At  twenty-one  years  of  age  he  was  elected  Attorney-General  of  Illinois. 
After  filling  various  state  offices  he  became,  in  1843,  representative  in  Con- 
gress from  Illinois,  and  in  1847  United  States  Senator,  holding  the  last- 
named  position  in  office  until  his  death  in  1861.  He  was  candidate  of  the 
Northern  Democrats  for  President  in  1860,  and  his  popular  vote  was  next 
to  that  of  Lincoln.  On  the  question  of  slavery  he  advocated  the  doctrine 
of  squatter  sovereignty.  On  account  of  his  small  physical  frame  and  great 
mental  power  he  was  known  as  the  "  Little  Giant." 


XXVI  APPENDIX    B. 

HOUSTON,  SAM  (1793-1863). —  Soldier  and  statesman,  born  in  Rock- 
bridge  County,  Virginia.  In  his  boyhood  his  widowed  mother  with  her 
family  moved  to  Tennessee.  Sam  received  but  little  education  and  spent 
much  of  his  time  with  the  Indians.  Enlisting  in  the  army,  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  General  Jackson  in  the  battle  of  Horseshoe  Bend.  He  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  Nashville ;  served  two  terms  in  Congress ;  was  elected 
governor  of  Tennessee.  During  his  term  as  governor  he  suddenly  aban- 
doned his  office  and  left  the  state  without  a  word  of  explanation.  For  three 
years  he  made  his  home  with  the  Indians  west  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1833 
he  came  to  Texas  and  entered  into  the  struggle  for  independence  from 
Mexico.  He  became  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Texan  forces  and  won 
the  victory  at  San  Jacinto,  which  closed  the  war.  He  was  twice  President 
of  the  Republic  of  Texas,  and  after  annexation  was  United  States  Senator. 
When  Texas  seceded,  Houston  was  governor  of  the  state.  Refusing  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Confederacy,  he  was  deposed.  He  died 
at  his  home  in  Huntsville,  Texas,  in  1863. 

MAURY,  MATTHEW  F.  (1806-1873).  —  Scientist,  born  in  Virginia.  En- 
joying slight  educational  advantages  in  youth,  Maury  was  through  life  a 
diligent  student.  At  nineteen  years  of  age  he  was  appointed  midshipman  in 
the  United  States  navy.  In  1834  he  published  his  first  work,  "  Maury's  Nav- 
igation," which  was  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the  navy.  In  1837  he  met 
with  an  accident,  which  lamed  him  for  life.  His  essays  on  improvements 
in  the  navy,  published  soon  afterward,  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy.  In  1844  he  became  Superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Observatory.  While  in  this  position  he  prepared  his  charts 
of  the  winds  and  ocean  currents,  which  proved  of  world-wide  benefit.  His 
"Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea"  was  translated  Into  many  foreign  lan- 
guages. Humboldt  declared  Maury  the  founder  of  a  new  science,  and  the 
leading  governments  of  the  world  showered  honors  upon  him.  He  iwsti- 
tuted  the  system  of  deep  sea  soundings,  and  his  discoveries  led  to  the  lay- 
ing of  the  Atlantic  cable.  When  Virginia  seceded,  Maury  resigned  from 
the  United  States  navy  and  offered  his  services  to  his  state,  declining  offers 
from  the  governments  of  Russia  and  France.  He  established  the  Confed- 
erate submarine  battery  service,  and  was  sent  to  Europe  to  continue  his 
experiments  and  to  fit  out  armed  cruisers.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Maury 
went  to  Mexico,  and  was  given  a  place  in  Maximilian's  cabinet.  The 
Emperor  of  France  offered  him  the  Superintendency  of  the  Imperial  Ob- 
servatory at  Paris,  but  he  finally  accepted  the  Chair  of  Physics  in  the 
Virginia  Military  Institute. 

WEBSTER,  DANIEL  (1782-1852).  —  Statesman,  tern  in  New  Hampshire. 
When  a  boy  he  had  only  a  few  months'  schooling,  and  was  so  shy  that  he 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES.  XXVii 

found  it  impossible  to  "speak  pieces  "  before  his  schoolmates.  His  fond- 
ness for  books  led  his  father,  though  a  poor  man  with  a  large  family,  to 
send  him  to  college.  Entering  upon  the  practice  of  law,  he  moved  to  Bos- 
ton, and  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  foremost  lawyers  of  the  country.  In 
1823  Webster  was  sent  to  Congress  from  Massachusetts,  and  in  1826  was 
sent  to  the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  under  Har- 
rison and  Tyler  and  again  under  Filmore.  Possessing  a  master  mind,  a 
splendid  physical  presence,  and  a  rich,  powerful  voice,  his  speeches  swayed 
readers  as  well  as  hearers,  and  rank  him  among  the  world's  great  orators. 


ERA  OF  WAR  BETWEEN  THE  STATES. 

BEAUREGARD,  PIERRE  GusTAVE  TOUTANT.  —  General  C.  S.  A.  Of 
French  extraction,  Beauregard  was  born  in  Louisiana,  1818.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  West  Point,  soldier  in  the  Mexican  War,  supervising  engineer 
of  fortifications  on  Gulf  coast,  and  at  outbreak  of  war  in  1861  superintend- 
ent of  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  Resigning  his  commission,  he 
ente  ed  the  Confederacy  and  directed  the  reduction  of  Fort  Sumter.  His 
most  important  services  were  rendered  at  First  Manassas,  at  Shiloh,-and  in 
the  operations  around  Rickmond.  He  surrendered  with  General  Johnston's 
army. 

BENJAMIN,  JUDAH  P.  —  Statesman.  His  parents  were  English  Jews, 
who  on  their  way  from  England  to  America  landed  at  St.  Croix,  West 
Indies,  where  in  1811  Judah  Benjamin  was  born.  His  boyhood  was  spent 
in  North  Carolina.  He  was  educated  at  Yale,  studied  law  at  New  Orleans', 
and  became  the  head  of  the  Louisiana  bar.  He  was  Whig  United  States 
Senator  from  1853  until  the  secession  of  his  state  in  1861.  He  entered 
President  Davis's  Cabinet,  serving  in  turn  as  Attorney-General,  Secretary 
of  War,  and  Secretary  of  State.  On  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy  he 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  soon  attained  preeminence  at  the  bar,  and 
was  made  Queen's  Counsel.  Benjamin  was  a  man  of  prodigious  applica- 
tion, profound  mental  grasp,  and  unquestioned  integrity. 

BURNSIDE,  AMBROSE  E.  (Indiana,  1824).  —  Major-General  U.  S.  A. 
Born  of  poor  parents,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  tailor;  his  interest  in  military 
history  attracted  the  notice  of  the  congressman  from  his  district,  who  pro- 
cured him  an  appointment  to  West  Point,  where  he  was  a  schoolmate  of 
McClellan  and  Stoaewall  Jackson.  He  entered  the  war  as  colonel  of  a 
Rhode  Island  regiment.  He  was  made  major-general  and  placed  in 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Defeated  at  Fredericksburg,  he 
was  superseded  by  Hooker.  Later  he  conducted  Union  operations  in  East 


XXV111  APPENDIX    B. 

Tennessee,  and  was  with  Grant's  army  before  Petersburg.  After  the  war 
he  was  governor  of  Rhode  Island  for  several  terms,  and  twice  United 
States  Senator. 

FARRAGUT,  DAVID  G.  —  United  States  naval  officer.  Born  in  Tennes- 
see in  1801.  He  was  adopted  in  boyhood  by  Commodore  Porter  of  the 
Essex,  a  warm  friend  of  his  father.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  served  on 
the  Essex  in  the  battle  with  the  British  Phcebe.  He  married  in  Norfolk, 
Virginia,  and  his  home,  so  far  as  he  had  a  home  on  shore,  was  in  that 
city.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  the  states,  he  tendered  his 
allegiance  to  the  Federal  government.  He  commanded  the  naval  forces 
that  effected  the  capture  of  New  Orleans.  At  Mobile  he  had  himself 
lashed  to  the  mast  of  his  flagship  in  order  that  he  might  direct  the  fight 
from  above  the  smoke  of  battle.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the  rank  of 
admiral  was  created  and  conferred  on  Farragut  as  a  mark  of  distinguished 
honor.  Farragut  was  the  most  distinguished  naval  officer  in  the  Union 
service,  and  was  a  man  of  rugged  honesty  and  great  ability. 

FORREST,  NATHAN  B.  (Tennessee,  1821).  —  Lieut-General  C.  S.  A., 
and  one  of  the  most  successful  cavalry  leaders  the  war  produced.  Left 
fatherless  at  sixteen  years  of  age,  with  his  mother  and  a  large  family  to 
support  on  a  rented  farm,  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  had  become 
the  prosperous  owner  of  a  rich  plantation.  In  1841,  when  Texas  was 
threatened  with  invasion  from  Mexico,  Forrest  joined  a  company  of  vol- 
unteers and  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  young  republic.  The  threatened 
danger  was  over  before  the  arrival  of  his  company  at  their  destination, 
and  Forrest,  finding  himself  in  Texas  without  means,  went  to  work  at 
splitting  rails,  and  thus  was  enabled  to  defray  his  expenses  home.  At  the 
beginning  of  hostilities,  in  1861,  he  raised  and  equipped  a  regiment  of  cav- 
alry, of  which  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  stationed  at  Fort 
Donelson,  and  when  the  surrender  of  that  place  was  decided  upon,  he  and 
his  men,  refusing  to  be  included  in  the  surrender,  marched  out  and  escaped. 
In  1862,  at  the  head  of  a  brigade  in  East  Tennessee  he  captured  the 
Federal  General  Crittendon  with  1700  men  and  large  supplies.  The  next 
year  by  a  successful  stratagem  he  compelled  Colonel  Streight  to  surrender 
a  force  three  times  as  large  as  his  own.  His  defeat  of  Gen.  W.  S.  Smith 
at  Okalona,  Miss.,  in  1864  put  a  stop  to  General  Sherman's  advance  upon 
Mobile.  His  raid  into  Kentucky  and  his  capture  of  Fort  Pillow  on  his 
return  were  daring  and  successful  feats.  At  Tishmingo  Creek,  Miss., 
Forrest  gained  one  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  of  the  war,  —  with  3200 
cavalry  routing  a  force  of  3300  cavalry  and  5400  infantry.  Always  in  the 
front  in  battle,  Forrest  was  brought  into  many  personal  conflicts.  Gen. 
Dick  Taylor  said  of  him,  "  I  doubt  if  any  commander  since  the  days  of 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES. 

the  lion-hearted  Richard  has  killed  so  many  enemies  with  his  own  hand 
as  Forrest."  Absolutely  devoid  of  military  training,  and  with  no  educa- 
tional advantages,  Forrest's  uniform  success  in  the  face  of  overwhelming 
odds  is  without  a  parallel  in  military  history. 

GORDON,  JOHN  B.  (Georgia,  1832).  — Lieutenant-General  C.  S.  A.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Georgia,  entered  the  Confederate  army 
as  captain,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  great  battles  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  and  was 
wounded  eight  times  during  the  war.  At  Appomattox  Gordon  commanded 
one  wing  of  Lee's  army.  Since  the  war  he  has  been  United  States  Sen- 
ator from  Georgia  and  governor  of  the  state.  He  has  been  repeatedly 
chosen  commander  of  the  United  Confederate  Veterans.  An  eloquent 
speaker,  his  addresses  on  scenes  and  events  of  the  war  have  met  a.  warm 
reception  North  and  South,  and  have  done  much  to  efface  the  bitterness 
between  the  sections. 

GREELEY,  HORACE.  —  Journalist;  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1811. 
In  boyhood  his  father  apprenticed  him  to  a  printer.  Having  learned  his 
trade,  he  set  out  for  New  York,  where  he  arrived  with  but  ten  dollars  and 
a  small  bundle  of  clothing.  In  1841  he  founded  the  New  York  Tribune, 
which  he  continued  to  edit  until  his  death,  and  which  became  the  most 
influential  paper  in  America.  In  politics  the  Tribune  was  at  first  Whig, 
then  Anti-slavery  Whig,  then  Republican.  After  the  war  Greeley  advocated 
a  liberal  policy  toward  the  people  of  the  South,  and  became  one  of  the 
bondsmen  of  Jefferson  Davis.  In  1872  he  was  presidential  candidate  of 
the  Liberal  Republican  and  Democratic  parties.  Disappointment  over  his 
defeat  unsettled  his  mind  and  led  to  his  death  before  the  close  of  the  year. 
Greeley  was  a  man  of  eccentric  habits,  decided  convictions,  open-hearted 
disposition,  and  honest  character. 

HANCOCK,  WINKIELD  S.  (1824). —  Major-General  U.S.A.  A  native 
of  Pennsylvania,  he  graduated  at  United  States  Military  Academy,  and  was 
promoted  for  gallantry  in  Mexican  War.  He  was  made  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  joined  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  served 
under  McClellan  in  the  peninsular  campaign  and  at  Sharpsburg,  fought  at 
Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville,  was  wounded  at  Gettysburg,  and  was 
prominent  in  the  battles  of  Grant's  campaign  against  Richmond.  In  the 
reconstruction  period  Hancock  was  placed  in  command  of  the  military 
district  including  Texas  and  Louisiana;  at  that  time  he  issued  his  famous 
"General  Order  No.  40,"  forbidding  the  military  to  interfere  in  civil  affairs. 
His  lenient  policy  was  distasteful  to  Congress  and  he  was  displaced,  but  it 
endeared  him  to  the  South.  In  1880  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
President.  Grant  said  of  him :  "  Hancock  stands  the  most  conspicuous 


XXX  APPENDIX    B. 

figure  of  all  the  general  officers  who  did  not  exercise  a  separate  command. 
His  name  was  never  mentioned  as  having  committed  in  battle  a  blunder 
for  which  he  was  responsible." 

HOOD,  JOHN  B.  —  General  C.  S.  A.  Born  in  Kentucky  in  1831.  Gradu- 
ating at  West  Point,  he  served  in  1857  against  the  Indians  in  the  Texas 
frontier,  and  was  severely  wounded  in  a  hand-to-hand  fight  with  a  savage. 
Entering  the  Confederate  service  as  captain,  his  gallantry  secured  him 
rapid  promotion.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  Texas  troops  in  the  Vir- 
ginia campaigns,  and  "  Hood's  Texas  Brigade "  became  famous  for  its 
splendid  fighting  qualities.  As  major-general  he  commanded  a  division  at 
Gettysburg.  Transferred  to  the  West  and  placed  in  command  of  the  army 
opposing  Sherman,  his  subsequent  career  is  part  of  the  history  of  the  war. 
He  died  of  yellow  fever  in  New  Orleans  in  1879.  Impetuous  courage  was 
General  Hood's  prominent  characteristic. 

JACKSON,  THOMAS  J.  ("Stonewall").  —  Lieutenant-General  C.  S.  A. 
Born  in  Clarksburg,  Western  Virginia,  in  1824,  Jackson  was  left  an 
orphan  at  seven  years  of  age,  and  was  reared  by  his  uncle.  He  secured 
an  appointment  to  a  cadetship  at  West  Point,  where  his  indomitable  will 
and  unswerving  devotion  to  duty  enabled  him  to  overcome  the  deficien- 
cies of  his  early  education.  He  graduated  seventeenth  in  a  class  of 
over  seventy,  and  such  had  been  his  remarkable  progress  that  his  class- 
mates used  to  say,  "  If  we  had  to  stay  here  another  year,  old  Jack 
would  be  at  the  head  of  the  class."  On  his  graduation  in  1846  Jackson 
was  ordered  to  Mexico,  where  he  served  with  distinction  under  General 
Scott.  He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1851  to  become  Professor  of  Nat- 
ural Philosophy  and  Military  Tactics  in  the  Virginia  Military  Institute. 
When  Virginia  seceded,  he  at  once  offered  his  services  to  his  native  state. 
As  an  officer  in  the  Confederate  army  his  brilliant  achievements  thrilled 
the  civilized  world  with  wonder  at  his  genius.  Absolute  secrecy  and  light- 
ning rapidity  marked  Jackson's  movements  in  war.  Implicit  faith  in  God 
was  a  prominent  trait  in  his  character,  fearless  devotion  to  duty  a  control- 
ling force  in  his  life.  Stern  and  inflexible  in  his  military  discipline,  awkward 
and  constrained  in  society,  in  his  home  life  he  was  as  gentle  and  tender  as 
a  woman.  "  Jackson  died  before  reaching  the  age  of  forty,  and  had  but 
two  years  in  which  to  display  the  great  faculties  which  rendered  his  name 
and  fame  immortal.  Few  human  beings  equaled  him  in  the  great  art  of 
making  war  —  fewer  still  in  purity  of  heart  and  life." 

JOHNSTON,  ALBERT  SIDNEY.  —  General  C.  S.  A.  Born  in  Kentucky  in 
1803;  graduated  at  West  Point;  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  War.  In 
August,  1836,  Johnston  joined  the  Texas  patriots,  and  became  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Texan  army.  Under  President  Lamar  he  was  made  Secre- 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES.  XXxi 

tary  of  War  of  the  Texas  Republic.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War 
he  joined  the  army  of  General  Taylor,  who  pronounced  him  the  best  sol- 
dier he  ever  commanded.  At  close  of  Mexican  War  he  retired  to  his  plan- 
tation in  Brazoria  County,  Texas.  Reentering  the  army,  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  Department  of  Texas  when,  in  1857,  he  was  ordered  to  restore 
order  among  the  Mormons  of  Utah.  The  news  of  the  secession  of  Texas, 
his  adopted  state,  reached  him  while  he  was  stationed  in  California.  He 
at  once  resigned  his  command  and  hastened  to  Richmond.  President 
Davis  placed  him  in  command  of  the  troops  in  the  West.  With  inade- 
quate forces  and  equipment  he  held  the  Union  armies  in  check  until  Jan- 
uary, 1862.  The  ablest  Confederate  general  in  the  West,  Johnston's  death 
at  Shiloh  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the  Southern  cause. 

JOHNSTON,  JOSEPH  E.  —  General  C.  S.  A.  Born  in  Virginia,  1807; 
graduated  at  West  Point;  served  in  Black  Hawk  War  and  against  the 
Florida  Indians.  In  the  Mexican  War  he  was  twice  wounded  and  was 
promoted  for  gallant  conduct.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  the 
states  he  was  quartermaster-general  of  the  United  States  army.  Resign- 
ing his  commission,  he  entered  the  Confederate  service,  and  with  General 
Lee  organized  the  forces  pouring  into  Richmond.  His  services  during  the 
war  are  a  part  of  the  history  of  that  struggle.  Johnston  possessed  great 
genius  as  a  tactician. 

LEE,  STEPHEN  D.  —  Lieutenant-General  C.  S.  A.  Born  in  South  Caro- 
lina in  1833;  graduated  from  West  Point.  Resigned  from  United  States 
army  and  became  aide-de-camp  to  Beauregard  at  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  ;  was 
with  Johnston  in  the  peninsular  campaign  and  rendered  conspicuous  ser- 
vice in  General  Lee's  army  until  in  November,  1862,  ordered  to  defense 
of  Vicksburg.  Here  he  commanded  in  the  important  engagements  of 
Chickasaw,  Bayou,  and  Champion  Hills.  After  the  surrender  at  Vicks- 
burg he  was  exchanged  and  given  a  cavalry  command  in  Mississippi. 
Later,  as  lieutenant-general,  he  participated  in  the  important  battles  in 
Georgia,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina,  surrendering  with  Johnston's 
command.  General  Lee  is  now  president  of  Mississippi  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College. 

MAGRUDER,  JOHN  B.  —  Major-General  C.  S.  A.  Born  in  Virginia,  1810 ; 
graduated  at  West  Point;  was  promoted  for  gallantry  in  the  Mexican  War. 
When  Virginia  seceded  he  resigned  from  the  United  States  army  and  en- 
tered the  Confederate  service.  Placed  in  command  of  the  troops  guarding 
the  mouth  of  the  James  River,  he  gained  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel,  and 
rendered  efficient  service  in  the  subsequent  peninsular  campaign.  In  1862 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  Department  of  Texas,  where  he  remained 
until  close  of  hostilities.  His  recapture  of  Galveston  was  one  of  the  bril- 


XXX11  APPENDIX    B. 

liant  actions  of  the  war.  After  the  surrender  he  served  in  the  army  of 
Maximilian  in  Mexico.  Returning  to  the  United  States,  he  lectured  on 
Mexico,  and  in  1869  settled  in  Houston,  Texas,  where  he  resided  until  his 
death  in  1871. 

MCCLELLAN,  GEORGE  B.  —  Major-General  U.  S.  A.  Born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1826;  graduated  with  honor  at  West  Point  ;  was  promoted  for 
gallant  conduct  in  the  Mexican  War;  appointed  by  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment to  visit  the  seat  of  the  Crimean  War,  he  published  on  his  return 
his  official  report  on  the  "Organization  of  European  Armies  and  Opera- 
tions in  the  Crimea."  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  between  the  states 
McClollan  commanded  the  Union  forces  in  Western  Virginia.  His  success 
here  led  to  his  appointment  as  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
but  dissatisfaction  with  his  dilatory  movements  led  to  his  removal  after  the 
battle  of  Sharpsburg.  He  took  no  further  part  in  the  war.  McClellan 
was  a  splendid  organizer  and  an  able  general.  In  1864  he  was  the  Demo- 
cratic nominee  for  President.  After  the  war  he  was  governor  of  New 
Jersey. 

REAGAN,  JOHN  H.  —  Statesman.  Born  in  Tennessee  in  1818,  Reagan's 
boyhood  was  a  struggle  with  poverty.  By  indomitable  pluck  and  deter- 
mination he  secured  an  education,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  came  to 
Texas.  After  serving  against  the  Indians  he  studied  law,  and  at  thirty 
was  admitted  to  practice.  He  held  several  state  offices  and  was  then 
elected  to  Congress,  where  he  served  from  1856  to  1861.  Returning  home, 
he  was  chosen  successively  delegate  to  the  Secession  Convention  of  Texas 
and  member  of  provisional  Confederate  Congress.  On  the  selection  of 
Davis's  Cabinet,  Reagan  was  appointed  postmaster-general.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Confederacy  he  was  captured  with  President  Davis  and  was 
imprisoned.  In  1874  he  was  again  elected  to  Congress,  serving  continu- 
ously until  1887,  when  he  was  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  1891 
Judge  Reagan  resigned  from  the  Sena'te  to  accept  the  chairmanship  of  the 
Railroad  Commission  of  Texas.  Of  vigorous  mind,  incorruptible  honesty, 
and  lofty  patriotism,  he  is  affectionately  termed  the  "  old  Roman." 

ROSECRANS,  W.  S.  —  Major-General  U.S.A.  Born  in  Ohio,  1819; 
graduated  at  West  Point ;  for  a  time  professor  in  the  Military  Academy. 
Entering  the  Union  army  in  1861,  he  gained  his  first  successes  under 
McClellan  in  West  Virginia.  He  commanded  the  Federal  forces  at  luka 
and  Corinth,  and,  succeeding  Buell,  fought  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro  and 
was  defeated  at  Chickamauga.  Transferred  to  Missouri,  he  served  in  that 
state  against  General  Price.  After  the  war  he  was  at  different  times 
minister  to  Mexico,  Democratic  Congressman  from  California,  and  Regis- 
trar of  the  United  States  Treasury. 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES.  XXxiii 

SEMMES,  RAPHAEL.  —  Confederate  States  naval  officer.  Born  in  Mary- 
land, 1809,  he  entered  the  United  States  army  at  seventeen  years  of  age. 
In  1842  he  removed  to  Alabama.  In  the  Mexican  War  he  served  as  naval 
officer  in  the  Gulf  Squadron.  On  the  secession  of  Alabama  he  resigned 
his  commission  in  the  United  States  navy  and  offered  his  services  to  Presi- 
dent Davis.  His  exploits  as  commander  of  the  Sumter  and  the  Alabama 
gained  him  world-wide  renown.  After  his  escape  from  the  sinking  Alabama, 
he  returned  to  the  Confederate  capital  by  way  of  Mexico  and  Texas,  and 
was  given  command  of  the  James  River  Squadron  defending  Richmond. 
He  surrendered  with  General  J.  E.  Johnston's  troops.  Entering  upon  the 
practice  of  law  at  Mobile,  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  by  orders  of  the 
Federal  government.  Later  he  became  successively  editor  of  a  daily  paper 
at  Mobile  and  professor  in  Louisiana  Military  Institute.  He  was  practic- 
ing law  at  Mobile  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1877. 

SHERMAN,  WILLIAM  TECUMSEH.  —  Lieutenant-General  U.  S.  A.  Born 
in  Ohio  in  1820.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  when  William  was  nine  years 
of  age,  he  was  adopted  by  Hon.  Thomas  Ewing.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point,  served  against  the  Seminoles,  and  during  the  Mexican  War  was 
stationed  on  the  Pacific  coast,  taking  no  active  part  in  the  contest.  In 
1853  he  resigned  from  the  army  and  engaged  in  banking  in  San  Francisco. 
In  i86o.-6i  Sherman  was  superintendent  of  the  Louisiana  Military  Acad- 
emy at  Alexandria,  but  on  the  secession  of  Louisiana  he  resigned  his  place 
and  entered  the  Union  army.  He  commanded  a  division  at  First  Manassas, 
and  after  that  battle  was  transferred  to  the  West,  serving  under  Grant  in 
the  Vicksburg  campaign  and  at  Chattanooga.  Later  he  commanded  the 
Union  army  in  the  march  through  Georgia. 

SMITH,  E.  KIRBY.  —  General  C.  S.  A.  Born  in  Florida,  1824;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point;  was  promoted  for  gallantry  in  the  Mexican  War.  In 
1859  he  led  a  cavalry  force  against  the  Comanche  Indians  in  Texas,  and 
for  his  services  received  the  thanks  of  the  Texas  legislature.  On  the 
secession  of  Florida  he  joined  the  Confederate  army,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Manassas.  In  1862  he  conducted  operations  in  Tennessee 
and  Kentucky,  and  in  1863  was  placed  in  command  of  the  Trans-Missis- 
sippi Department,  including  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  He  estab- 
lished furnaces  and  powder-mills,  and  by  running  the  blockade  at  Galveston 
sent  large  quantities  of  cotton  to  Confederate  agents  abroad,  making  his 
department  self-sustaining.  His  troops  were  the  last  to  surrender. 

STUART,  J.  E.  B.  —  Major-General  of  cavalry.  Born  in  Virginia,  1833, 
graduated  at  West  Point,  served  against  the  Apache  Indians  in  Texas  in 
1854,  and  aided  in  quelling  the  Kansas  troubles  in  1856.  Entering  the 
Confederate  service,  he  served  with  distinction  as  Lee's  trusted  cavalry 


XXXIV  APPENDIX    B. 

leader  in  all  campaigns  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  until  his  death  at 
Yellow  Tavern  before  Richmond.  He  twice  performed  the  daring  feat  of 
making  a  complete  circuit  of  the  Union  army.  At  Chancellorsville  he 
succeeded  to  Stonewall  Jackson's  command  after  the  fall  of  that  officer. 
Absolutely  fearless,  of  a  gay  and  joyous  disposition,  pure  in  speech  and 
temperate  in  habits,  Stuart  was  an  ideal  Christian  soldier.  The  war 
produced  no  finer  cavalry  officer. 

TAYLOR,  RICHARD.  —  Lieutenant-General  C.  S.  A.,  only  son  of  Presi- 
dent Zachary  Taylor.  He  was  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1826,  spent  four 
years  of  his  youth  studying  in  Europe,  was  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and 
joined  his  father  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  residing  on  a  sugar  planta- 
tion in  Louisiana  when  the  late  war  began.  Joining  the  Confederate  army, 
he  served  as  brigadier- general  under  Stonewall  Jackson  until,  in  1862,  he 
was  assigned  to  the  command  of  Louisiana,  where  he  succeeded  in  recover- 
ing the  state  for  a  time  from  the  Union  forces.  His  defeat  of  Banks  at 
Mansfield  crushed  that  general's  expedition.  He  surrendered  to  General 
Canby  on  May  8,  1865. 

THOMAS,  GEORGE  H.  —  Major-General  U.  S.  A.  Born  in  Virginia  in 
1816  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840.  He  served  with  distinction 
against  the  Seminoles  and  in  the  Mexican  War.  From  1856  to  1861 
Thomas  was  stationed  in  Texas  as  major  of  a  regiment  of  which  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston  was  colonel,  Robert  E.  Lee  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
W.  J.  Hardee  major.  In  the  war  between  the  states  Thomas  entered 
the  Federal  service.  His  career  in  the  Tennessee  campaigns  from  Mill 
Spring  to  Chickamauga  and  Nashville  proved  him  to  be  one  of  the  ablest 
generals  on  the  Union  side.  His  modesty  was  equal  to  his  ability.  In 
1862  he  declined  to  be  promoted  over  Buell,  and  in  1868  he  refused  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  on  the  ground  that  he  had  done  nothing  since 
the  war  to  deserve  promotion. 

TOOMBS,  ROBERT.  —  Statesman  and  soldier.  Born  in  Georgia  in  1810, 
he  became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  lawyers  of  his  state.  He  served 
in  the  Creek  War,  was  a  member  of  the  legislature,  representative  in  Con- 
gress from  1845  to  1853,  and  United  States  Senator  from  1853  to  1861. 
An  able  debater,  he  was  a  powerful  champion  of  the  cause  of  the  South 
and  an  earnest  advocate  of  secession.  Under  the  Confederacy  he  was 
at  different  times  congressman,  secretary  of  state,  and  brigadier-general. 
After  the  war  he  persistently  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
United  States  government,  and  died  a  disfranchised  citizen. 

VAN  DORN,  EARL.  —  Major-General  C.  S.  A.  Born  in  Mississippi  in 
1820;  graduated  at  West  Point;  was  several  times  promoted  for  gallant 
conduct  in  Mexican  War ;  served  in  Seminole  War ;  and  led  a  force  against 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES.  XXXV 

the  Comanche  Indians  of  Texas,  and  was  dangerously  wounded  by  arrows 
of  the  savages.  In  this  campaign  L.  S.  Ross,  of  Texas,  the  "  boy  captain," 
won  his  spurs.  In  the  Confederate  service  Van  Dorn  was  appointed  colonel 
of  cavalry,  and  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  Texan  volunteers  captured  the 
steamer  Star  of  the  West  at  Indianola,  Texas,  and  compelled  the  Federal 
forces  of  Sibley  and  Reeves  to  surrender.  He  fought  at  Pea  Ridge,  Ark., 
Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  and  Franklin,  Tenn.  In  1863  he  was  shot  by  a 
physician  on  account  of  a  personal  grievance. 


APPENDIX    C. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


PREAMBLE. 

WE,  the  people  of  the  United  States,1  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide 
for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  CONSTITUTION  for  the  United  States  of  America. 


ARTICLE    I.  — LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT. 
SECTION  i.  —  CONGRESS. 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives. 

1  As  originally  adopted  by  the  convention,  this  clause  began  with  the  words,  "  We, 
the  people  of  the  States  of  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  .  .  .  ," 
etc.,  naming  each  of  the  thirteen.  But  as  it  was  agreed  that  only  nine  states  ratifying 
should  be  sufficient  to  establish  the  Constitution  between  themselves,  and  as  it  was 
impossible  to  foretell  which  states  would  compose  the  number  ratifying,  the  language 
of  the  preamble  was  changed  to  a  general  term  to  include  the  people  of  such  states  as 
should  favor  the  new  government. 

The  Articles  of  Confederation  were  established  by  the  states,  acting  in  most 
instances  through  their  Legislatures  ;  the  Constitution  was  established  by  the  states, 
acting  in  all  cases  through  conventions  of  their  people. 


APPENDIX    C. 


SECTION  2.  —  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and 
Election  of  ^e  electors1  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications 
Members.  requisite  for  electors1  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of 
the  State  Legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five   years,  and   been  seven  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 

several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according 

to  their  respective  numbers,2  which  shall  be  determined 

Apportionment..  ...  .  .,  ,  .,,. 

by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including 
those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons.3  The  actual  enumeration  shall 
be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in 
such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  represen- 
tatives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State 
shall  have  at  least  one  representative  :  and  until  such  enumeration 
shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to 
choose  three  ;  Massachusetts,  eight ;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations,  one  ;  Connecticut,  five ;  New  York,  six  ;  New  Jersey, 
four  ;  Pennsylvania,  eight ;  Delaware,  one  ;  Maryland,  six  ;  Virginia, 
ten  ;  North  Carolina,  five ;  South  Carolina,  five ;  and  Georgia,  three. 
When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the 

executive  authority4  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election 

to  fill  such  vacancies. 

1  "  Electors,"  meaning  voters.     Persons  whom  a  state  permits  to  vote  for  repre- 
sentatives in  the  lower  House  of  its  Legislature  are  here  given  the  right  to  vote  for 
representatives  in  Congress. 

2  At  present  (1895)  there  is  one  representative  for  every  173,901  persons. 

8  "Persons"  here  means  slaves.     The  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amendments 
annul  this  provision. 
4  Governor. 


XXXviii         CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The   House  of   Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
Officers  other  officers  ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeach- 


SECTION  3.  —  SENATE. 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  senators 
Number  frOm  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for 

of  Senators :  '  -' 

Election.  six  years  ;  and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 

first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 

classes.    The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall 

Classification.  .... 

be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year  ;  of  the 
second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year ;  of  the  third  class, 
at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen 
every  second  year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  other- 
wise, during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive4 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of 
the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an 
inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of  the 
President  of  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally 

Senate.  divided. 

The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president 
pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or 
when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of   President  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments  : 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
Trials  of  When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 

impeachment.    Chief-Justice  shall  preside  :  and  no  person  shall  be  con- 
victed without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

4  Governor. 


APPENDIX    C.  XXXix 

Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any 

office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States  ; 
inUciseeof  but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and 

subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punishment, 
according  to  law. 

SECTION  4.  —  BOTH  HOUSES. 

The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  senators 
and  representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by 

Manner  of  .        T        .  , 

Electing  the  Legislature  thereof  ;   but  the  Congress  may  at  any 

time,  by  law,  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as 
to  the  places  of  choosing  senators.1 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
Meetings  of  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless 
Congress.  ^gy  s]iau  ]jy  jaw  app0int  a  different  day. 


SECTION  5.  —  THE  HOUSES  SEPARATELY. 

Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifi- 
cations of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may 
adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  com- 
pel the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under 
such  penalties,  as  each  house  may  provide. 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time 
to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judg- 
ment  require   secrecy,   and  the  yeas   and  nays  of  the 
members  of  either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the 
desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

1  Otherwise,  Congress  would  have  power  to  fix  the  places  of  meeting  of  state  legis- 
latures. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
con 

liournment. 

nor 
shall  be  sitting. 


consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days, 
nor  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses 


SECTION  6.  —  PRIVILEGES  AND  DISABILITIES  OF  MEMBERS. 

The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation l  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except 
Privileges  of  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged 
from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of 
their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same  ; 
and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  ques- 
tioned in  any  other  place. 

No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he 
was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of 
Prohibitions  ^e  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the 
on  Members,  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during 
such  time  ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States, 
shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during  his  continuance  in  office. 


SECTION  7.  —  METHOD  OF  PASSING  LAWS. 

All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
Revenue  sentatives  ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with 

Bills.  amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the 
How  Bills  President  of  the  United  States  ;  if  he  approve,  he  shall 
become  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections, 

to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall 
enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  recon- 
sider it.  If  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  house  shall 

1  $5000  a  year,  and  twenty  cents  for  every  mile  traveled  by  direct  route  to  and 
from  the  capital. 


APPENDIX    C.  xli 

agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to 
the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if 
approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in 
all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas 
and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the 
bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If  any 
bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be 
a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by 
their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be 
a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
Resolutions  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  Presi- 
etc-  dent  of  the  United  States ;  and  before  the  same  shall 

take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him, 
shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the 
case  of  a  bill. 


SECTION  8.  —  POWERS  GRANTED  TO  CONGRESS. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power: 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
Powers  of  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general 
Congress.  welfare  of  the  United  States  ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and 
excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,1  and  uniform  laws 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States ; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

1  The  legal  process  by  which  a  foreigner  becomes  entitled  to  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 


xlii  CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States ; 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads  ; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing,  for 
limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their 
respective  writings  and  discoveries  ; l 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations  ; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,2  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  ; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces  ; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections  and  repel  invasions. 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and 
for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according 
to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress  ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  partic- 
ular States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over 
all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals, 
dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings  ;  —  And 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
implied  'nto  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 

Powers.  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the 

United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

1  Authors  secure  "  copyrights  "  on  their  writings  ;  inventors,  "  patents  "  on  their 
inventions. 

2  Letters  granted  by  the  government  to  private  citizens  in  time  of  war,  authorizing 
them,  under  certain  conditions,  to  capture  the  enemy's  ships. 


APPENDIX    C. 


SECTION  9.  —  POWERS  FORBIDDEN  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 

now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be 

Prohibitions       prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand 

on  Congress.          ...... 

eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  im- 
posed on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person.1 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  2  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder8  or  ex-post-facto  law4  shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation8  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or 
revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another  ;  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay 
duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriations  made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of 
the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States:  And  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office, 
or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

1  "  Persons "  meaning  slaves;   in   1808  Congress  prohibited  the  importation  of 
slaves. 

2  An  official  document  requiring  an  accused  person  who  has  been  imprisoned 
awaiting  trial  to  be  brought  before  a  judge  to  inquire  whether  he  may  be  legally  held. 

3  An  act  of  a  legislative  body  inflicting  the  death  penalty  without  trial. 

4  A  law  relating  to  the  punishment  of  acts  committed  before  the  law  was  passed. 
6  Capitation  tax,  poll  tax. 


xliv 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


SECTION  10.  —  POWERS  FORBIDDEN  TO  THE  STATES. 

No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation  ; 

grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  ;  coin  money  ;  emit 

Prohibitions       bills  of  credit  ;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a 

on  the  States.  .         .  .    .    ,  ....       ,  .     . 

tender  in  payment  of  debts ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder, 
ex-post-facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or 
grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  neces- 
Conditional  Sary  ^Or  executm£  its  inspection  laws  ;  and  the  net  prod- 
Prohibitions  uce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports 
or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States  ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and 
control  of  the  Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of 
tonnage,  keep  troops,  or  ships-of-war,  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into 
any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign 
power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent 
danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 


ARTICLE    II.  —  EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT. 
SECTION  i.  —  PRESIDENT  AND  VICE-PRESIDENT. 

The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.     He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the 
term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice-President, 
chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected,  as  follows  : 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof 
may  direct,   a  number  of  electors,   equal  to  the  whole   number  of 
senators  and  representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be 
entitled  in  the  Congress  :    but  no  senator  or  represen- 
tative, or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United 
States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 


APPENDIX    C. 


xlv 


[a  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each ;  which 

Proceedin  s  of   list  they  ska^  s!gn  ^^  certifv  an^  transmit  sealed  to  the 
Electors  and      seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to 

of  Congress. 

the  president  of  the  Senate.  The  president  of  the  Senate 
shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if 
such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ; 
and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an 
equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President  ;  and  if  no 
person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said 
house  shall,  in  like  manner,  choose  the  President.  But  in  choosing 
the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall 
consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a 
majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every 
case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President.  But  if 
there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate 
shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.] 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and 
Time  of  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes  ;  which  day 

Electors.  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States.2 

No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
Qualifications  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution, 
of  President.  shau  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President  ;  neither 
shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have 

1  This  paragraph  in  brackets  has  been  superseded  by  the  Twelfth  Amendment. 

2  The  electors  are  chosen  on  the  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in  November, 
next  before  the  expiration  of  a.  presidential  term.     They  vote  (by  Act  of  Congress  of 
Feb.  3,  1887)  on  the  second  Monday  in  January  following,  for  President  and  Vice- 
President.    The  votes  are  counted,  and  declared  in  Congress  on  the  second  Wednes- 
day of  the  next  February. 


xlvi  CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

attained  to   the  age  of  thirty-five  years,   and  been  fourteen  years 

resident  within  the  United  States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 

resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the 
said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President, 
and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of 

removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and 

Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President ; 

and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly  until  the  disability  be  removed, 

or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  com- 
pensation *  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he 
shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument 

from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the 

following  oath  or  affirmation :  —  "I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm) 
that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of 
the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 

preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

SECTION  2.  —  POWERS  OF  THE  PRESIDENT. 

The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy 

of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when 

called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States  ;  he 

Military 

Powers.  may  require   the  opinion,   in  writing,   of   the   principal 

Reprieves         officer  in  each  of  •  the  executive  departments,  upon  any 
°ns'      subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices  ; 
and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses 
against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  senators  present 
concur  ;    and  he  shall   nominate,  and  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  shall  appoint  ambassa- 
dors, other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court, 

1  The  President  now  receives  $50,000  a  year ;  the  Vice-President,  $8000. 


APPENDIX    C. 


xlvii 


and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are 
Appoint-  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be 
ments.  established  by  law :  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest 

the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the 
President  alone,  in  the  cpurts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 
The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
Fill  happen  during  the  recess  of  the   Senate,   by  granting 

Vacancies.  commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next 
session. 


SECTION  3.  —  DUTIES  OF  THE  PRESIDENT. 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the 

state  of   the   Union,    and   recommend  to  their   consideration   such 

measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient ;   he 

may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses, 

or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with 

respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such 

Convene  time  as  he  sha^  think  proper  ;  he  shall  receive  ambassa- 

Congress.          dors  and  other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall  take  care  that 

the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers 

of  the  United  States. 


SECTION  4.  —  IMPEACHMENT. 

The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
Removal  of  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment 
Officers.  forj  anci  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high 

crimes  and  misdemeanors. 


xlviii  CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

ARTICLE    III.— JUDICIAL    DEPARTMENT. 
SECTION  i.  —  UNITED  STATES  COURTS. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from 

time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of 
Established.  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices 

during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  their  services  a  compensation1  which  shall  not  be  diminished 
during  their  continuance  in  office. 

SECTION  2.  —  JURISDICTION  OF  UNITED  STATES  COURTS. 

The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
F  d  ral  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their 

Courts  in  authority ;  —  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers,  and  consuls  ;  —  to  all  cases  of  admiralty 
and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  —  to  controversies  to  which  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  party  ;  —  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
States  ;  —  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State  ;  2 — between 
citizens  of  different  States  ;  —  between  citizens  of  the  same  State 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State, 
or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  con- 
suls, and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court 
Supreme  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  other  cases  before 

Court.  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  juris- 

diction, both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such 
regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by 

jury  ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes 

shall  have  been   committed  ;    but  when  not  committed 

within  any   State,   the  trial   shall  be   at  such  place  or 

places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

i  The  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  receives  $10,500  a  year :  the  associate 
justices,  $10,000.  2  But  compare  Amendment  XI. 


APPENDIX    C.  xlix 

SECTION  3 TREASON. 

Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying 
Treason  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 

Defined.  tnem  ajd  and  comfort. 

No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony 
of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 
The   Congress  shall  have   power  to  declare   the   punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corrup- 
tion of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the 
person  attainted. 

ARTICLE    IV.  — RELATIONS    OF    THE    STATES    TO 
EACH    OTHER. 

SECTION  i.  —  OFFICIAL  ACTS. 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the 
Congress  may  by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such 
acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

SECTION  2 PRIVILEGES  OF  CITIZENS. 

The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on 
FU  'tives  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from 
from  justice,  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the 
State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  l  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or 
Fu  'tiv  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or 

Slaves.  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to 

whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

l  "Person  "  here  includes  slave.  This  was  the  basis  of  the  Fugitive-Slave  Law.  It 
is  now  superseded  by  Amendment  XIII. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


SECTION  3.  —  NEW  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union ; 
but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
Admission  an7  otner  State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction 
of  states.  Of  two  or  more  states,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the 
Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful 

Territo  Tv^es  *n<^  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other 

and  Property     property  belonging  to  the  United  States  ;  and  nothing  in 

this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice 

any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 


SECTION  4.  —  PROTECTION  OF  THE  STATES. 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a 
republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against 
invasion,  and  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive 
(when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 


ARTICLE   V.  —  AMENDMENTS. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
How  application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several 

Proposed.  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments, 
which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as 
part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths 
How  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may 

Ratified.  be  proposed  by  the  Congress  ;  provided  that  no  amend- 

ment which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the 
ninth  section  of  the  first  article  ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  con- 
sent, shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 


APPENDIX    C. 


ARTICLE   VI. —  GENERAL   PROVISIONS. 

All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements  entered   into,   before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against 
the  United  States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the 
confederation. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof  ;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall 
Supremacy  of  De  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall 
Constitution.  be  the  SUpreme  ]aw  of  the  land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every 
State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of 
any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial 
officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several 
States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support 
Religious  test.    this  Constitution  .    but  no  religiOus  test  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the 
United  States. 


ARTICLE   VII.  —  RATIFICATION    OF   THE 
CONSTITUTION. 

The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  rati- 
fying the  same. 

Done  in  convention,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present,  the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven, 
and  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States  of  America 
the  twelfth. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON, 
President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

VIRGINIA. 

NICHOLAS  OILMAN. 

THOMAS  MIFFLIN, 

JAMES  MADISON,  JR. 

ROBERT  MORRIS, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

GEORGE  CLYMER, 

NATHANIEL  GORHAM, 

THOMAS  FITZSIMONS, 

NORTH   CAROLINA. 

RUFUS  KING. 

JARED  INGERSOLL, 

WILLIAM  BLOUNT, 

CONNECTICUT. 

GOUVERNEUR    MORRIS. 

RICHARD  DOBBS  SPAIGHT, 
HUGH  WILLIAMSON. 

WILLIAM  SAMUEL  JOHNSON, 

DELAWARE. 

ROGER  SHERMAN. 

GEORGE  READ, 

SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

GUNNING  BEDFORD,  JR., 

NEW   YORK. 

JOHN  DICKINSON, 

JOHN  RUTLEDGE, 

ALEXANDER  HAMILTON. 

RICHARD  BASSETT, 

CHARLES  C.  PINCKNEY, 

JACOB  BROOM. 

CHARLES  PINCKNEY, 

PIERCE  BUTLER. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

MARYLAND. 

WILLIAM  LIVINGSTON, 

JAMES  M'HENRY, 

GEORGIA. 

DAVID  BREARLKY, 

DANIEL   OF   ST.    THOMAS 

WILLIAM  PATERSON, 

JENIFER, 

WILLIAM  FEW, 

JONATHAN  DAYTON. 

DANIEL  CARROLL. 

ABRAHAM  BALDWIN. 

Attest:        WILLIAM    JACKSON,  Secretary. 


AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE  I.1  —  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  estab- 
Religion,  lishment  of   religion,   or   prohibiting   the    free    exercise 

As!embly,reSS'    thereof ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the 
Petition.  press  ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble, 

and  to  petition  the  government  for  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II.  —  A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the 
security  of  a  free  State  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and 
bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 
ARTICLE  III.  —  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered 
in  any  house,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner  ;  nor  in 
time  of  war  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 


Militia. 


i  The  first  ten  amendments  were  proposed  by  Congress  in  1 789,  and  adopted  in 
1791.  They  are  often  called  the  Bill  of  Rights,  and  they  are  intended  to  guard  more 
efficiently  the  rights  of  the  people  and  of  the  states.  See  §  339. 


APPENDIX    C. 


liii 


ARTICLE  IV.  —  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their 
persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches 
Unreasonable  an(*  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall 
Searches.  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 
affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and 
the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V.  —  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or 
otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a 
Criminal  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 

Prosecutions,  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of 
war  and  public  danger  ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same 
offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb  ;  nor  shall  be  com- 
pelled in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  to  be 
deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law  ;  nor 
shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  without  just  compen- 
sation. 

ARTICLE  VI.  —  In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall 
enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of 
the  State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed, 
which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to 
be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  con- 
fronted with  the  witnesses  against  him  ;  to  have  compulsory  process 
for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of 
counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE  VII.  —  In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  con- 
troversy shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by 
Confmon  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall 

be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States  than  according  to  the  rules  of  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII.  —  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  exces- 
Bail  sive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments 

Punishments.       inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX.  —  The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain 
rights  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others 
Rightland         retained  by  the  people. 

Powers.  ARTICLE  X.  —  The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United 

States  by  the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are 
reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 


liv  CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

ARTICLE  XI.1  —  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not 
dicial  ^e  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  corn- 


Power  menced  or  prosecuted  against  any  of  the  United  States 

by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of 
any  foreign  state. 

ARTICLE  XI  I.2  —  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States, 
and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at 
least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves  ; 
they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and 
in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President  ;  and  they 
shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of 
Method  of  a^  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number 
President  and  °*  votes  *or  each,  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify, 
Vice-President.  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate  ;  —  the  president 
of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted  ;  —  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for 
President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not 
exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President. 
But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 
representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President 
whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the 
fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act 
as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  dis- 
ability of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no 
person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the 

1  Proposed  in  1794  ;  adopted  1798. 

2  Adopted  1804. 


APPENDIX   C.  Iv 

list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for  the 
purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  senators, 
and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President 
shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII.1  —  Section  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary 
Slavery  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the 

Abolished.  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within 
the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV.2  —  Section  i.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in 
the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens 
Negroes  made  °*  ^e  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside. 
Citizens.  jsjo  state  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 

abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  ; 
nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  juris- 
diction the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole 
number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But 
when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for 
President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  representatives  in 
Congress,  the  executive  or  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members 
of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of 
such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion 
or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in 
the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to 
the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such 
State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in 
Congress,  or  elector  of  President  or  Vice-President,  or  hold  any 
office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State, 
who  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as 

i  Adopted  1865.  2  Adopted  z868. 


IVI  CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legis- 
lature, or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insur- 
rection or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the 
enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each 
house,  remove  such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States, 
authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions 
and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion, 
shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insur- 
rection or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the 
loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave  ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations, 
and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  j.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV.1  —  Section  i.  The  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United 
Negroes  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the 

Made  Voters.  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color, 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 


i  Adopted  1870. 

,^<  '  ^ 


Wf 


INDEX. 


Abolition  crusade,  the,  288,  289. 

movement,  1837-40,  295. 

Abolitionists,  tenets  of  the,  289. 

Acadia,  114. 

Acadians,  expulsion  of  the,  117. 

Adams,  John,  sketch  of,  235. 

administration  of,  235-240. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  election  of,  271. 

administration,  272-277  ;  sketch  of, 

277,  278;  policy,  274,  275. 

Alabama,  admission  of,  266  ;  ceded  to  the 
United  States,  214. 

Alabama,  the  Kearsarge  and  the,  384. 

Alabama  claims,  404,  405. 

Alamance,  battle  of,  160. 

Alamo  (Ah'la-mo),  massacre  at,  302. 

Alaska,  purchase  of,  401. 

Albany,  N.  Y.,  47;  settled,  100. 

Albemarle  Sound,  settlement  at,  68. 

Algonquins  (Al-gon'kin),  the,  3. 

Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  239. 

Altamaha  River,  73. 

America,  discovery  of,  21  ;  name  of,  29,  49. 

four  hundred  years  ago,  i. 

America,  North,  physical  features  of,  i,  2. 

Amerigo  Vespucci  (Ah-ma-re'go  Ves-poot- 
che),  29. 

Anarchist  troubles  in  Chicago,  426. 

Anderson,  Maj.,  at  Fort  Sumter,  348,  349. 

Andersonville  prison,  385. 

Andre'  (An 'dray),  Major,  capture  and  execu- 
tion of,  199. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  government  of,  in 
Mass.,  88  ;  in  Connecticut,  90,  91  ;  gover- 
nor of  N.  E.,  96 ;  deposed,  97 ;  in  N.  Y., 

Annapolis  convention,  the,  218. 

Anti-Federalists,  the,  227. 

Anti-slavery  societies,  289. 

Antietam  (An-tee'tam),  battle  of,  366,  367, 

368. 

Apaches  (Ah-pah'chay),  the,  3. 
Appointments  to  office,  419. 
Appomattox  Court-House,  surrender  of  Lee 

at,  387. 

Arbuthnot,  execution  of,  266. 
Armbrister,  execution  of,  266. 
Arnold,  Benedict,  expedition  to  Canada, 

169 ;  on    Lake   Champlain,   180 ;   at  Fort 

Stanwix,    182  ;  at  Saratoga,   182  ;  treason 

of,  198,  199  ;  raids  Virginia,  202  ;  destroys 

towns  in  Connecticut,  204. 
Arthur,  Chester  A.,  nomination  of,  417;  life 

and  services,  419,  420. 
Ashburton  treaty,  the,  299,  300. 


Ashe,  Gen.,  194. 
Ashley  river,  70. 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  Sherman's  march  on,  382  ; 

capture  of,  383. 
Atlanta  exposition,  the,  422. 
Atlantic  cable,  the,  401. 
Augusta,  capture  of,  194. 
Aztecs,  the,  2. 

Bacon,  64. 

Bacon's  rebellion,  62. 

Baffin's  bay,  discovery  of,  43. 

Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific,  31. 

Baltimore,  population  in  colonial  times,  136. 

Baltimore,  attack  on,  in  1814,  261;  convention 

at,  in  1860,  333  ;  riot  April  19,  1861,  350. 
Baltimore,  Lord,  in  Maryland,  66-68. 
Banks,  Gen.,  invades  Texas,  374  ;  defeated 

by  Gen.  Dick  Taylor,  378. 
Bartholdi's  (Bar-tohl'dy)  statue  of  "liberty," 

427. 

Bay  psalm  book,  129. 
"  Bear  flag  revolutionists,"  314. 
Beauregard  (Bo'-re-gard),  Gen.,  at  Corinth, 

359- 

Behring,  Vitus,  401. 
Behring  sea  arbitration,  437. 
Belknap,  impeachment  of,  409. 
Bell,  John,  nomination  of,  333. 
Bemis.  heights,  181. 
Bennington,  battle  of,  181. 
Berkeley,   Gov.,   subdues   Indians  in  Va., 

59  ;   government  of,  in  Va.,  63  ;  on  free 

schools  and  the  printing  press,  140. 
Berkeley,  Lord,  grantee  of  New  Jersey,  103. 
Bidwell,  John,  prohibition  candidate,  434. 
Black  Hawk  war,  288,  317. 
Blackbeard,  64. 

Elaine,  James  G.,  nomination  of,  423. 
Blair,  Frank  P.,  403. 
Blair,  Rev.  James,  140. 
Bland  Bill,  the,  430. 
Blockade  of  Southern  States,  350,  352. 
Blockade  runners,  356. 
Boco  Chico  (Chee'co),  Texas,  battle  of,  388. 
Bon  Homme  Richard,  the,  192,  193. 
Bonneville  (Bon'vil),  Capt.,  309. 
Boone,  Daniel,  230,  231. 
Booth,  John  Wilkes,  388. 
Boston,  evacuation  of,  169  ;  founded,  85. 
Boston  fire,  the,  406. 
Boston  massacre,  159. 
Boston  News-Letter,  132. 
Boston  Port  Bill,  161,  162. 
Boundaries  fixed  by  treaty  of  1783,  212. 


Iviii 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Boundary  dispute  with  Great  Britain,  299, 
300. 

Braddock's  defeat,  116. 

Bradford,  William,  83. 

Bragg,  Gen.,  succeeds  Beauregard,  360;  in- 
vades Tennessee,  360 ;  defeats  Rosecrans, 
375  ;  defeat  of,  at  Lookout  Mountain,  376. 

Brandywine,  battle  of  the,  184. 

Breckinridge,  John  C.,  nomination  of,  334. 

Breton,  Cape,  36. 

Brewster,  Elder  William,  81. 

Briar  Creek,  Ga.,  battle  of,  194. 

Brock,  Gen.,  253. 

Brooklyn  bridge,  422. 

Brown,  John,  raid,  332. 

Buchanan,  James,  administration  of,  327- 
338 ;  attitude  of,  towards  Secession,  336. 

Bull  Run,  battle  of,  353,  354 ;  effect  of,  355. 

second  battle  of,  366. 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  167,  168. 

Burgoyne,  Gen.,  campaign  of,  180-183  !  sur- 
render of,  182,  183. 

Bumside,  Gen.,  succeeds  McClellan,  369. 

Burr,  Aaron,  conspiracy  of,  245. 

Butler,  Gen.  Benjamin  F.,  at  New  Orleans, 
361 ;  sent  to  James  River,  376  ;  operations 
on  the  James,  380 ;  on  employment  of 
captured  slaves,  391  ;  nominated  for  the 
presidency  by  Anti-Monopolists,  423. 

Cabeza  de  Vaca  (Kah-bay'thah  day  VahTcah), 

Cabinet,  the  first,  228,  229. 

Cabot,  John,  23-25  ;  voyage,  25. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  25,  26. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  proposes  tax  on  imports, 

285  ;  on  nullification,  286,  287  ;  speech  on 

Compromise  bill  of  1850,  320. 
California,  acquisition  of,  313,  314. 
California  question,  319. 
Calvert,  Cecil,  66. 

George,  66. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  first  printing  in,  132. 

Camden,  battle  of,  196,  197. 

Campbell,  William,  198. 

Canada  Expedition,  169. 

Canada,  invasion  of,  1812,253  ;  in  1813,255- 

258  ;  in  1814,  259. 

Canals,  activity  in  building,  273,  274. 
Canary  Islands,  20. 
Cape  Fear  Settlement,  68. 
Capital,  the  national,  229 ;  removal  of,  236. 
Caravels,  20. 
Carolina,    Huguenot    settlements    in,    37 ; 

charter  of,  69 ;   first   proprietors   of,  69 ; 

constitution,  69 ;   misrule  in,  70 ;   fall  of 

proprietary  government,  70. 
"  Carpet-baggers,"  the,  400 ;  rule  of  the,  407. 
Carteret,  Sir  George,  grantee  of  New  Jersey, 

103. 

Carrier,  Jacques  (Zhack  Kart-e-ay'),  discov- 
ers the  St.  Lawrence,  37. 
Carver,  Gov.  John,  82,  83. 
Catholics  in  Georgia,  74 ;  in  Maryland,  65. 
Census,  the  eleventh,  434. 
Centennial  Exposition,  the,  410, 
Central  America,  ruins  in,  2. 


Cerro  (Thay'ro>  Gordo,  battle  of,  312. 

Chad's  Ford,  184. 

Champlain  (Sham-plane'),  37. 

Champlain,  Lake,  battle  of,  260. 

Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  370. 

Charles  the  Second,  62. 

Charles  IX  of  France,  37. 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  settlement,  71  ;  character 
of  first  settlers,  71  ;  relative  size  in  1763, 
125  ;  principal  town  in  the  South,  136  ; 
attack  on,  in  1776,  171  ;  capture  of,  195. 

-  earthquake  in  1886,  427. 

Charter  Oak,  the,  90. 

Chattanooga,  Gen.  Bragg  at,  360  ;  siege  of, 

Cherry  Valley  Massacre,  188. 

Chesapeake,  the,  and  the  Shannon,  254,  255. 

Chesapeake  Bay,  the  English  in,  65  ;  French 

fleet  in,  204. 
Chicago,  the,  432. 
Chicago  fire,  the,  406. 
Chicago,  World's  Fair  in,  436,  437. 
Chicamauga,  battle  of,  375. 
Chili,  trouble  with,  in  1891,  431. 
Chinese  immigration,  426. 
Chippewa,  battle  of,  259. 
Church  customs  in  New  England  Colonies, 

129. 

Cincinnati,  riot  in,  1884,  423'. 
Cipango  (Che-pan  go),  island  of,  25. 
Citizen,  rights  of  the,  under  the  Constitution, 

222. 

Civil  Service  under  Jackson,  283. 

Civil  Service  reform,  420,  421. 

Clarke,  George  Rogers,  expedition  of,  to  the 

Illinois  country,  190,  191. 
Clay,  Henry,  251  ;  and  the  Missouri  com- 

promise, 268  ;  duel  with  Randolph,  275  : 

supports  national   bank,  284,  299  ;    tariff 

policy  of,  286,  287  ;  Whig  leader,  292  ;  his 

compromise  bill,  319,  320. 
Claybome,  William,  66,  67. 
Clermont,  the,  246. 
Cleveland,    Grover,    nomination    of,    423  ; 

administration   of,    424  ;    defeat  of,  428  ; 

reelected,  434. 
Cliff  dwellers,  the,  2. 
Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  on  the  Carolina  coast, 

170;    supersedes    Howe,    187;    captures 

Charleston,  195. 
Cockburn,  Admiral,  261. 
Cold  Harbor,  battle  of,  380. 
Colfax,  Schuyler  (Sky-ler  Cole-fax),  nomin- 

ated for  vice-president,  403. 
College  of  Pennsylvania,  144. 
Colonies,  manners  and  customs,  124. 
Colonists,  the  first,  56. 
Colonization,  English,  43-45. 
Colorado,  admission  of,  410. 
Columbia,  S.  C.,  burning  of,  386. 
Columbia,  District  of,   selected  as  seat  of 
t     236;  slavery  in,  290. 
bia  College,  144. 
Columbia  river,  244  ;  discovery  of,  307. 
Columbus,  Christopher,  16-23. 
Comanches,  the,  3. 
Commercial  difficulties,  249. 


govt 
Colum 


INDEX. 


lix 


Compromise  of  1850,  319,  320. 

Comstock  silver  mines,  331. 

Concord,  Mass.,  battle  of,  163-166. 

Confederacy,  defensive  points  of  the,  351, 
352. 

Confederate  States,  organization  of  the,  337. 

Confederation,  articles  of,  211,  212,  217. 

Congress,  burning  of  the,  362. 

Congress,  formation  of,  220,  221. 

See,  also,  Continental  Congress, 

Stamp  Act  Congress. 

Connecticut  Colony,  settlement  of,  89 ; 
unites  with  New  Haven  Colony,  90 ; 
charter,  90. 

Conscription  Act,  the,  376. 

Constitution,  Federal,  the,  adoption  of,  219; 
provisions  of  the,  220-222  ;  Northern  and 
Southern  views  of  the,  339 ;  fourteenth 
amendment,  399 ;  fifteenth  amendment, 
4°5- 

Constitution,  the,  and  the  Guerriere,  252. 

Constitutional  convention  at  Annapolis, 
218;  at  Philadelphia,  218,  219. 

"Constitutional  Party,"  the,  333. 

Continental  Congress,  162 ;  second  Con- 
gress, 168  ;  powers  of,  211. 

Continental  Currency.  215,  216. 

"  Contraband  of  War,"  368. 

"  Conway  Cabal  "  (Ca-bal'),  the,  186. 

Corinth,  battle  of,  360. 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  179,  184;  in  South  Caro- 
lina, 196-198 ;  retreats  to  Virginia,  202  ; 
surrender  of,  205. 

Coronado  (Co-ro-nah'do),  33. 

Corruption,  official,  408. 

Cortez  in  Mexico,  33. 

Cotton  gin,  the,  233. 

Cotton  industry,  growth  of,  234. 

"  Courtesy  of  the  Senate,"  419. 

Cowpens,  battle  of  the,  200,  201. 

Credit  Mobilier  (Mo-beel'yer),  the,  408. 

Creek  land  troubles,  276,  277. 

Creek  war,  the,  259. 

"  Crittenden  Compromise,"  the,  336,  390. 

Crogan,  Capt.,  defends  Fort  Stephenson, 
256. 

Cromwell,  "  Lord  Protector,"  62. 

Crook,  Gen.,  379. 

Crown  Point,  116. 

Cumberland  road,  the,  269,  275,  276. 

Cumberland,  the,  sinking  of,  362. 

Currency,  irregular  standards  in  the  vanous 
states,  216,  217. 

See  Continental  Currency. 

Custer,  Gen.,  death  of,  409. 

Da  Gama  (Dah  Gah'mah),  Vasco,  42. 

Daguerre  (Dah-gair'),  296. 

Dakotahs,  the,  3. 

Dark  ages,  the,  16. 

Dartmouth  College  founded,  132. 

Davenport,  John,  90. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  in  the  compromise  of  1850, 
320 ;  elected  president  of  the  confederacy, 
337  ;  capture  of,  389  ;  death,  389. 

Davis,  John,  42. 

Dearborn,  Gen.,  255. 


Declaration  of  Independence,  the,  172. 

Declaration  of  rights,  the,  158. 

De  Grasse,  Count,  203. 

Delaware,  Swedes  in,  48,   49  ;  settlement, 

106 ;  claim  to,  106,  107  ;  province,  107. 
De  Long,  Capt.,  polar  expedition  of,  420. 
Democratic  party  in  1860,  333. 
"Democratic  simplicity,"  242. 
Demonetization  of  silver,  409. 
De  Monts  (Da  Mong')  founds  Port  Royal,  37. 
De  Soto,  Ferdinand,  32,  33. 
Detroit,  surrender  of,  251. 
Dollar,  silver,  216. 
Dorchester  heights,  169,  170. 
Dorr  Rebellion,  the,  299. 
Douglas,   Stephen    A.,   on    the    Nebraska 

bill,  323  ;  nomination  of,  333. 
Douglas-Lincoln  debate,  329-331. 
Draft  riot  in  N.  Y.  city,  376. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  voyages  of,  40-42,  45. 
Dred  Scott  decision,  327,  328. 
Dress  of  the  colonists,  131,  147. 
Drouth  in  1881,  422. 
Dutch  explorations,  46,  47. 

customs  in  N.  Y.,  146,  147. 

inN.  Y.,  100,  101. 

patroons,  145. 

Protestants,  144. 

West  India  Company,  47. 

Duxbury,  Standish  house  in,  84. 


Early,  Gen.,  marches  to  Washington,  380. 
p:arth,  figure  of  the,  17. 
East  India  Company,  54. 

Jersey,  104. 

Education    in   the   colonies,  132,   140,  141, 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  134. 
Elections,  see  Presidential  elections. 
Electoral  commission  of  1876,  412. 

votes,  counting  the,  426. 

Electric  light,  417. 

Elk  Horn,  battle  of,  359. 

Emancipation,  proclamation  of,  367,  391. 

Embargo,  the,  244. 

Embassy  to  France  in  1796,  237. 

Endicott,  John,  84,  85. 

England,  religious  sects  in,  71. 

difficulties  with,  in  1810,  249 

Emerson,  Dr.,  327. 

English,  W.  H.,  nomination  of,  417. 

English  claims  to  North  America,  26,  45. 

colonies,  territorial  extent  of,  124, 125. 

depredations  on  American  commerce, 

'-  explorations,  39. 

possessions  in  North  America,  in  ; 

"  Era  of  good  feeling,"  the,  265. 

Ericsson,  Leif,  13-15. 

John,  builds  the  Monitor,  362. 

Erie  canal,  the,  269. 

Lake,  battle  of,  256,  257. 

Eutaw  Springs,  battle  of,  202. 

Evangeline,  poem,  117. 

Everett,  Edward,  nominated  for  vice-presi- 
dent, 333. 


Ix 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Xarragut,  Admiral,  runs  the  fire  of  the  con- 

federate forts,  361. 

Federal  convention  of  1787,  the,  218,  219. 
Federalist,  the,  248.       ' 

-  party,  downfall  of,  262. 
Federalists,  the,  226,  227. 

Ferguson,  Gen.,  at  King's  mountain,  198. 
Field,  Cyrus  W.,  401. 
Fifteenth  amendment,  the,  405. 
"  Fifty-four  forty  or  fight,"  309. 
Fillmore,  administration  of,  318-320. 
Finances  under  the  confederation,  215. 
Financial  system,  Hamilton's,  229. 
Fires,  forest,  in  1881,  422. 

-  great,  406. 

First  legislative  assembly,  60. 

Fisheries,  the,  35,  36,  405. 

Floods  in  1882,  422. 

Florida,  discovery  of,  30  ;  conquest  of,  32  ; 
Sir  John  Hawkins's  voyage  to,  40  ;  pur- 
chase of,  266  ;  admitted  to  the  Union,  305  ; 
invasion  of,  377. 


Florida,  the,  385. 
Foote,  Commodore, 


apt 


Fort  Henry, 


Forrest,  Gen.,  raid  by,  378. 

Fort  Brown,  Texas,  310;  Fort  Donelson, 
358;  Fort  Duquesne  (Du-kane'),  115-117; 
evacuation  of,  118,  119;  Fort  Erie,  siege 
of,  259,  260;  Fort  Frontenac,  118  ;  Fort 
Henry,  attack  on,  261,  352,  358;  Fort 
Jackson,  capture  of,  361  ;  Fort  Meigs 
(Meegs),  siege  of,  255,  256  ;  Fort  Mimms, 
massacre  at,  259;  Fort  Necessity,  sur- 
render of,  115;  Fort  Niagara,  116,  119; 
Fort  Orange,  I0o ;  Fort  Phillips,  361; 
Fort  Pillow,  359,  378  ;  Fort  Stanwix,  siege 
of,  181,  182  :  Fort  Stephenson,  256  ;  Fort 
Sumter,  bombardment  and  surrender  of, 
348-350  ;  effect  of  fall  of,  350  :  Fort  Wil- 
liam Henry,  118. 

"  Forty-niners,"  316. 

Fourteenth  amendment,  399. 

France,  difficulties  with,  during  Adams's 
administration,  237,  238,  249.  See,  also, 
under  French. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  134. 

Franklin,  battle  of,  385. 

Franklin,  state  of,  214. 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  367. 

Fremont,  Gen.  John  C.,  explores  the  Rocky 
mountains,  313  ;  conquers  California,  314. 

French  alliance,  183. 

French  and  the  Indians,  112. 

and  Indian  war,  114-120. 

claims  to  North  America,  39. 

colonists,  number  of,  in. 

in  North  America,  36-39. 

power  in  America,  downfall,  113. 

settlements  in  North  America,  limits, 

spoliations,  238. 

sympathizers,  1793,  232. 

traders,  38. 

wars,  1 10. 

Frenchtown,  battle  of,  255. 
Frobisher,  Martin,  42. 


Frolic,  the,  capture  of,  252. 
Fugitive  slave  law,  320,  321. 
Fulton,  Robert,  246. 

Galvez,  Governor,  191. 

Garfield,  James  A.,  administration  of,  418, 
419;  assassination  of,  419. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  abolition  advo- 
cate, 289,  290  ;  publishes  the  Liberator, 
289. 

Gas,  illuminating,  274. 

Gates,  Gen.,  at  Saratoga,  182  ;  in  the  South, 
196-199. 

Genet  (Zhen-ay')  citizen,  232. 

Genius,  the,  289,  290. 

Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,  the, 
289. 

Genoa,  18. 

Georgia,  settlement  and  colonization,  72-75  ; 
territory  of,  72  ;  trustees  of,  73  ;  govern- 
ment of,  74  ;  Whitefield  and  Wesley  in,  74, 
75  ;  Spanish  invasions,  75  ;  British  army 
in,  196  ;  rank  of,  in  population,  in  1763, 
125  ;  the  Creek  lands  question,  276,  277. 

Gerry  (g  as  in  get),  Elbridge,  in  France,  238. 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  371,  372. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  colonization  expe- 
ditions, 43. 

Goffe,  the  "  regicide,"  95. 

Gold,  discovery  of,  in  California,  315. 

Gold  fever  of  1849,  3'S,  3*t>- 

Gold  seekers,  56. 

Goldsboro,  battle  of,  386. 

Gosnold,  53,  54,  55  ;  voyage  of,  45. 

Government,  in  the  English  colonies,  126. 

Grangers,  Society  of,  407. 

"  Granite  Road,"  the,  290,  291. 

Grant,  Gen.  U.  S.,  captures  Fort  Donelson, 
358 ;  Vicksburg,  373,  374 ;  commands 
army  of  the  west,  376  ;  appointed  lieuten- 
ant-general, 378  ;  plan  of  campaign,  378, 
379 ;  moves  on  Richmond,  379  :  changes 
base  of  operations  to  the  James,  381 ; 
forces  Lee  to  surrender,  387 ;  elected 
president,  402  ;  administration  of,  404-412  ; 
death,  425. 

Gray,  Robert,  discovers  the  Columbia  river, 

"  Great  awakening,"  the,  96. 

Great  Cham,  the,  25. 

Great  Eastern,  the,  401. 

Great  lakes,  the  French  on  the,  38. 

Greeley,  Horace,  nomination  of,  407. 

Greely,  Lieut.,  polar  expedition  of,  420. 

Greenback  party,  the.  417. 

Greene,  Gen.  Nathaniel,  supersedes  Gates, 

199;  southern  campaign  of,  200-202. 
Guanahani  (Gwah-nah-hahne')  island,  21. 
Guerriere  (Gher-re-air'),  the,  capture  of,  252. 
Guilford  Court  House,  battle  of,  201,  202. 
Guiteau  (Git-to'),  C.  J.,  assassin,  419. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  48. 

Habeas  Corpus,  suspension  of  writ  of,  350, 

3/6. 

Hadley,  Mass.,  Indian  attack,  95. 
Half  Moon,  the,  47. 


INDEX. 


Ixi 


Halleck,  Gen.,  placed  in  command  of  Union 
army,  359. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury, 228  ;  financial  scheme  of,  229. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,  323. 

Hampton,  Gen.,  255. 

Hampton  Roads,  362,  363. 

Hancock,  John,  168. 

Hancock,  Gen.  W.  S.,  nomination  of,  417. 

"  Hannibal  of  the  West,"  190. 

Harmer,  Gen.,  expedition  of,  against  the 
Indians,  231. 

Harper's  Ferry,  John  Brown  at,  332  ;  cap- 


ture of,  367. 

:i,    Benjamin,   iM-mm..^'-,   v*,   ^ 
character  and  services  of,  430  ;   admi 


Hani 


n,   nomination   of, 


tration,  430-435. 
Harrison,  Gen.  W.  H.,  at  Tippecanoe,  250; 

campaign  in  Michigan,  255,  256  ;  in  battle 

of  the   Thames,  257  ;   elected  president, 

297  ;  death,  297. 
Hartford  convention,  the,  262. 
Hartford,  founded,  89. 
Harvard  College,  132. 
Hawaii  (Hah-wi'e),  revolution  in,  433. 
Hawkins,  Sir  John,  on  the  Florida  coast, 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  nomination  of,  410; 
elected  president,  412  ;  administration, 
415-418  ;  withdraws  Federal  troops  from 
the  South,  416. 

Hayne-Webster  debate,  286. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  nomination  of,  411, 
423  ;  death,  425. 

Henry  VII,  39. 

Henry,  Patrick,  62  ;  defiant  speech,  155. 

Henry  Letters,  the,  250. 

Hobkirk  Hill,  202. 

Holidays  in  Colonial  New  England,  131 ;  in 
the  Middle  colonies,  147  ;  in  the  Southern 
colonies,  139. 

Holland  in  the  i6th  and  i?th  centuries,  46. 

Hood,  Gen.  J.  B.,  succeeds  Johnston,  383  ; 
Tennessee  campaign  of,  383,  384. 

Hooker,  Gen.  Jos.,  supersedes  Burnside, 
367. 

Hooker,  Thomas,  settles  Hartford,  89. 

Hornet,  the,  and  the  Peacock,  254. 

Horseshoe  Bend,  battle  of,  259. 

Houston  (Hew'ston),  Sam,  303. 

Howe,  Gen.,  176,  177. 

Hudson,  Henry,  voyage  of,  42. 

Hudson's  bay,  42. 

Hudson  river,  discovery,  n,  46,  47;  cam- 
paign on  the,  179,  180. 

Huguenots,  massacre  of  the,  34 ;  settle- 
ments of,  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida, 

Hull,  Capt.  Isaac,  252. 

Hull,   Gen.   William,  defeated  at    Detroit, 

Hutcninson,  Gov.,  158. 
Hutchinson,  Anne,  teachings  of,  86. 

Idaho,  admission  of,  433. 
Illinois  country,  the  Clarke's  expedition  to, 
in  1778,  190,  191. 


Im 


'residei 


50. 


ipeachment  proceedings  against  P 

Johnson,  400. 

Impressment  of  American  seamen,  : 
Indian  massacres  in  Virginia,  59. 
Indian  tribes,  classification  of,  3. 
Indian  wars,  7. 

Indiana  admitted  to  the  Union,  263. 
Indians,    as    allies,    9 ;    characteristics,  9 ; 

clothing,  4  ;  government  and  religion,  6 ; 

home   life,  4 ;    on  the   reservations,    10 ; 

lands  of,  8  ;  relations  with  the  whites,  8  ; 

social    distinctions    among,    5 ;     tortures 

by,  7- 

Indians  in  the  Southwest,  191. 
Internal    improvements,    268,    269 ;    John 

Quincy  Adams's  policy  in  regard  to,  274, 

275  ;  policy  of  Congress,  277. 
Interstate  railroad  commission,  426. 
Inventions,  416. 
Iowa,  admission  of,  305. 
Iron  furnaces  in  Virginia,  135. 
Iron-clad  oath,  the,  400. 
Ironclads,  363. 

Iroquois  (Ir'ro-quoy),  the,  3,  112. 
Isabella,  Queen,  20. 
Island  No.  10,  fall  of,  359. 
Italy,    trouble    with,    in    regard    to    New 

Orleans  riot,  431. 
luka,  battle  of,  360. 

lackson,  Gov.  of  Missouri,  355. 
ackson,  Gen.  Andrew,  in  the  Creek  war, 

J;  at  New  Orleans,  in  1814,  263  ;  in  the 
ninole  war,  266 ;  services  of,  282  ;  ad- 
ministration of,  282-292  ;  treatment  of  the 
Nullifiers,  287. 

Jackson,  "  Stonewall,"  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  364,  365  ;  death  of,  371. 

Jamestown,' Va.,  settlement  of,  45,  55,  56; 
sufferings  of  the  settlers,  57;  principal 
town  in  Va.,  136  ;  first  church  in,  140. 

Japan,  treaty  with,  326. 

Jasper,  Sergeant,  171,  172,  195. 

Jay's  treaty,  232,  233. 

Jeannette,  the,  420. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  62  ;  and  the  declaration 
of  independence,  173  ;  secretary  of  state, 
228  ;  elected  president,  240  ;  administra- 
tion of,  241-246 ;  his  plan  for  gradual  ex- 
tinction of  slavery,  267. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  governor  of  Tenn.,  359; 
becomes  president,  388 ;  administration 
of,  397-404;  impeachment  of,  400,  401. 

Johnston,   Gen.   Albert   Sidney,  death  of, 

Johnston,  Gen.  J.  E.,  victorious  at  Bull 
Run,  354,  355  ;  succeeded  by  Gen.  Lee, 
364 ;  opposes  Sherman  in  Georgia,  382, 
386  ;  surrenders,  388. 

Johnstown  flood,  the,  433. 

Jones,  Paul,  naval  victory  of ,  192,  193. 

Kansas,  the  struggle  for,  329,  330  ;  admis- 
Kansas-a'nd-Nebraska  Bill,  322-324. 


259; 

Srni 


Ixii 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Kearney  (Kar'ny),  Gen.,  in  New  Mexico, 
3'4,  315- 

Kenesaw  mountain,  battle  of,  382. 

Kentucky,  becomes  a  state,  214;  Indian 
massacres  in,  231;  admitted  to  the  Union, 
232  ;  adheres  to  the  Union,  350. 

Kentucky  Resolutions,  the,  339. 

Kettle  Creek,  Ga.,  194. 

Key,  Francis  S.,  261. 

King  George's  war,  113,  114. 

King  Philip's  war,  94-98. 

King  William's  war,  113,  114. 

King's  mountain,  battle  of,  198. 

Know-Nothing  party,  325. 

Knox,  Gen.,  secretary  of  war,  228. 

Ku  Klux  Klan,  the,  407. 

Labor  riots  in  1877,  416. 
Labor  troubles  in  1886,  426. 
Lafayette,  Gen.,  183,  184  ;  his  visit  to  Amer- 
ica, 270,  271  ;  in  Virginia  campaign,  202, 

La°Salle  (Lah-sahT)   explores  the  Missis- 

sippi,  38,  39. 
Lawrence,  Capt.,  attacks  the  Shannon,  254  ; 

death,  255. 

Lawrence,  the,  256,  257. 
Laws  of  New  England  Colonies,  129. 
Lecompton  Constitution,  the,  329,  330. 
Lee,  Gen.   Charles,  disobeys  Washington, 

177,  178  ;  rebuked,  187  ;  suspended,  188. 

-  Gen.  Henry,  200. 

-  Richard  Henry,  172,  173. 

-  Gen.  Robert  E.,  assumes  command 
of  Army  of  Virginia,  364  ;  invades  Mary- 
land, 366,  367  ;  defeats  Hooker,  370,  371  ; 
invades    Pennsylvania,   371  ;     retreat  of, 
372  ;   repulses  Grant  in  the  Wilderness, 
380  ;  surrender  of,  387. 

Lees,  the,  62. 

Leisler  (Lise'ler),  Jacob,  governor  of  New 

York,  102. 

Lewis  and  Clarke  Expedition,  244,  307. 
Lexington,  battle  of,  163-166. 
"  Liberal  Republicans,"  the,  407,  408. 
Liberator,  the,  289,  290. 
Lincoln,  Gen.,  194  ;  surrender  of,  195,  196. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  nomination,  333  ;  elec- 

tion,  335  ;     administration    of,   347-387  ; 

issued    Proclamation    of    Emancipation, 

368  ;    reelection,    385  ;    assassination    of, 

387  ;  his  plan  of  reconstruction,  397,  398. 
Lincoln-Douglas  debate,  329-331. 
Literature  of  New  England  Colonies, 

133  ;  in  Southern  Colonies,  141. 
"  Log  Cabin  "  candidate,  297. 
Locke,  John,  his  "  Fundamental  Constitu- 

tions," 69,  72. 
Locomotive,  the,  274. 
London  Company,  the,  54,  62. 
Long  Island,  battle  of,  176. 
Lookout  mountain,  battle  of,  376. 
Losses  in  the  war  between  the  states,  389, 

39?- 

Louisburg,  capture  of,  114. 
Louisiana,  purchase  of,  243  ;  admitted  to  the 

Union,  263  ;  election  dispute  in  1876,  411. 


132, 


Louisiana,  name  applied  by  La  Salle  to  the 

Mississippi  Valley,  39. 
Lovejoy,  Elijah,  martyrdom  of,  295. 
Lundy,  Benjamin,  early  Abolitionist,  288. 
Lynchburg,    Va.,   movement    against,   380, 

Lyon,  Matthew,  imprisonment  of,  239. 
Lyon,  Gen.,  campaign  of,  in  Missouri,  355, 
356- 

Madison,  James,  administration  of  247-271 
Mafia  (Mah-fee'ah),  the,  432. 
Magellan,  31,  42. 
-  Straits  of,  41. 
Magruder,  Gen.,  374. 
Maine,  admission  of,  268. 
Maiden,  Mich.,  255. 
Malvern  Hill,  battle  of,  366. 
Manassas,  battle  of,  353,  366. 
Mansfield,  battle  of,  86 
Marion,  Gen.  Francis,  196,  200. 
Marriages  in  the  Southern  Colonies,  139. 
Martin,  Gen.  Joseph,  191. 
Maryland,  founders  of,  65  ;  settlement,  65- 
68  ;   boundary  dispute  with  Virginia,  66  ; 
religious  troubles,  67. 
Maryland  Gazette,  the,  141. 
Mason,  Capt.  John,  in  Pequod  war,  93. 
Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  67,  125. 
Mason  and  Slidell,  capture  of,  356. 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  84-88. 
Massachusetts,  rank  in  population  in  1763, 
125  ;  resolutions  on  Townshend  Acts,  159  ; 
annulment  of  charter,  162. 
Massachusetts  Emigrant  Aid  Society,  324, 

325- 

Massasoit,  94. 

Matagorda  Bay,  La  Salle  at,  39. 
Matamoras,  capture  of,  311. 
Mather,  Increase,  and  witchcraft,  87. 
Maximilian,  Emperor,  401. 
Mayflower,  the,  81. 
Mayflower  Compact,  the,  82. 
McClellan,  Gen.  G.  B.,  in  West  Virginia, 
353  ;   assumes  command  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  363  ;   his   Peninsular   cam- 
paign, 365,  366  ;  nominated  for  president, 

McClure,  Capt.,  43. 
McCulloch,  Gen.  Ben.,  359. 
McDonald,  Gen.,  198. 
McDonough,  Commodore,  260. 
McDowell,  Gen.   Iryin,  at  Bull  Run,  354, 
5  ;    threatens   Richmond,   364  ;    guards 
ashington  City,  365. 
McEnery,  Gov.,  411. 
Mclntosh,  Gen.,  death  of,  276. 
McKinley  Bill,  the,  431. 
Meade,  Gen.,  succeeds  Hooker,  371  ;  victo- 

rious at  Gettysburg,  371,  372. 
Mecklenburg  Declaration,  the,  166,  167. 
Memphis,  fall  of,  359. 
Menendez,(May-nen'deth),  Pedro  de,  founds 

St.  Augustine,  34  ;   massacres  Huguenots, 

in  Carolina,  34. 
Merrimac,  the,  362. 
Mexico,  war  with,  3io-3i3;the  French  111,401. 


355  ;    t 
Washi 


Ixiii 


Mexico,  City  of,  capture  of,  313. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  La  Salle  in  39,  40. 

Middle  Colonies,  the,  99. 

Military  government  in  the  South,  399. 

Mill  Spring,  battle  of,  358. 

Mills  Bill,  the,  428. 

Mineral  discoveries,  331. 

Ministers'  salaries  in  colonial  Va.,  155. 

Minnesota,  admission  of,  331. 

Missionary  Ridge,  battle  of,  376. 

Missionaries,  Roman  Catholic,  in  North 
America,  38. 

Mississippi,  ceded  to  U.  S.,  214. 

Mississippi  river,  Confederate  defenses  on 
the,  361 ;  discovery  by  De  Soto,  33  ;  ex- 
ploration, 38,  39;  floods  in  1882,  422; 
navigation  of,  214,  215  ;  operations  on  the, 
in  1862,  359,  361. 

Missouri,  campaign  in  1861,  355,  356. 

Missouri  "  border  ruffians,"  325. 

Missouri  Compromise,  the,  267,  268,  319, 
323,  324  ;  opinion  of  Supreme  Court  on, 
328.  329. 

Missouri  Fur  Company,  308. 

Mobile,  Admiral  Farragut  in,  384. 

Modoc  war,  the,  409. 

Money  system  of  Jefferson  and  Morris,  216. 

Monitor,  the,  and  the  Merrimac,  362. 

Monmouth,  battle  of,  187,  188. 

Monocacy  (Mo-nok'-a-sy),  battle  of,  380. 

Monroe,  James,  administration  of,  264-270  ; 
his  tour  in  N.  E.,  264,  265. 

Monroe  doctrine,  the,  269,  270. 

Montana,  admission  of,  434. 

Montcalm,  118-120. 

Monterey  (Mon-te-ray'),  capture  of,  311. 

Morgan,  Gen.,  200,  201. 

Morgan,  Gen.  John,  raid  of,  374. 

Mormon  insurrection,  329. 

Mormons,  the,  300,  301. 

Moore's  Creek,  N.  C.,  battle,  170. 

Morris,  Robert,  215. 

Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  invents  telegraph,  296,  301. 

Morton,  Levi  P.,  nomination  of,  428. 

Moultrie,  Fort,  battle  of,  1776,  171. 

Mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  10. 

Mount  Vernon,  226. 

Murfreesboro',  battle  of,  360. 

Muscovy  Company,  the,  54. 

Mutiny  act,  the,  159. 


Nashville,  the,  blockade  runner,  356. 

Nashville,  battle  of,  384. 

National  banks,  283,  284,  294,  298,  299. 

National  Republicans,  the,  275. 

Naval  battles,  1812,251,252. 

Navigation  acts,  153,  154. 

Navy  in  the  Revolution,  191. 

Navy,  new  warships,  432. 

Negro  troops,  employment  of,  385. 

Neutral  rights,  357. 

Neutrality  policy,  232. 

New  Amsterdam,  47. 

New   England   Colonies,   79-97;   president 

and    council   of,   83;    great    revival,  96; 

occupations  of  the  people  in    1763,   127; 


town   life,   128;    Sabbath  in,    128;   laws, 

129  ;  education,  132. 

New  England  and  the  tariff,  in  1816,  285. 
New  England  Confederation,  the,  of  1643, 

New  England  Emigrant  Society,  324,  325. 

New  England  Primer,  234. 

New  Hampshire,  settlement,  92. 

New  Haven  Colony,  90. 

New  Jersey,  Dutch  claims  to,  49;  settlement, 
103,  104. 

New  Mexico,  conquest  of,  314,  315. 

New  Orleans,  battle  of,  263 ;  capture  of, 
361;  exposition,  422. 

New  Sweden,  49. 

New  York  City,  settled,  too ;  Dutch  pur- 
chase from  the  Indians,  101;  English  cap- 
ture, 102;  British  occupation,  177;  cam- 
paign around,  ^1776-78,176;  draft  riots,376. 

New  York  Colony,  Dutch  in,  99-101 ;  Eng- 
lish rule,  102  ;  population  in  1763,  125 ; 
occupations  of  the  people,  143  ;  religious 
intolerance,  144  ;  education,  144  ;  govern- 
ment, 145  ;  social  life,  146. 

Newfoundland  fisheries,  35. 

Newport,  Christopher,  55. 

Newport,  Rhode  Island,  attack  on,  188. 

Newspapers  in  the  Southern  Colonies,  142. 

Niagara,  the,  256,  257. 

Niagara,  battle  of,  259. 

Nicholson,  Gov.,  tyranny  of,  152. 

North,  Lord,  downfall  of,  205. 

North  Carolina,  settlement  and  colonization, 
68  ;  ratifies  constitution,  220. 

North  Dakota,  admission  of,  433. 

Northern  plan  of  campaign,  in  1861,  352. 

Northmen,  the,  13. 

Northwest  Territory,  the,  213;  Maryland  and 
the,  211. 

Northwest  passage,  the  42. 

Northwestern  boundary,  the,  307,  405. 

Nullification,  286,  287,  321. 

Oath  of  supremacy,  66. 

Ocean  Pond,  377. 

Oglethorpe,  Gov.  James,  of  Georgia,  73,  74. 

Ohio,  admission  of,  243  ;  settlers  in,  231, 232. 

Ohio  company,  the,  114. 

Oil  wells  in  Pennsylvania,  331. 

Oklahoma  boom,  the,  432,  433. 

"  Old  Dominion,"  the,  62. 

Old  Ironsides,  252. 

Omnibus  bill,  the,  319,  320. 

Opechancanough  (O-pe-can-can'o)  massacres 

the  whites  in  Va.,  59. 
Ordinance  of  1787,  213,  214. 
Oregon,  exploration  of,  244  ;  admission  of, 

Oregon  question,  the,  307. 
"  Oregon  trail,"  the,  307-309. 
Orleans,  territory  of,  263. 
Otis,  James,  and  the  Writs   of  Assistance, 
154- 

Pacific  ocean,  discovery  of,  31. 

railroad,  406. 

explorations,  321. 


Ixiv 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Palo  (Pahlo)  Alto,  battle  of,  310,  311. 

Pan-American  Congress,  the,  429. 

Panic  of  1837-8,294;  of  1857,329;  of  1873,  409. 
Paper  money,  216.    See,  also,  Currency. 
Parliament  and  the  colonies,  156,  157. 

"  Parson's  case,"  the,  155. 

Parties  during  Washington's  administra- 
tion, 226,  227. 

Patroons,  the,  100. 

Pea  Ridge,  battle  of,  359. 

Peace,  treaty  of,  201. 

Peacock,  the,  254. 

Peninsular  campaign,  the,  366 

Penn,  William,  104-106. 

Pennsylvania,  settlement  of,  104  ;  Quakers, 
104  ;  population  in  1763,  125  ;  occupations 
of  the  colonists,  144  ;  government  of,  145  ; 
religious  toleration,  144. 

Pequod  war,  93. 

Perry,  Commodore  O.  H.,  victory  on  Lake 
Erie,  256,  257. 

Commodore   M.    C.,    expedition    to 

Japan,  326. 

Perrysville,  Ky.,  battle  of,  360. 

Personal  liberty  bills,  321,  336. 

Petersburg,  Va.,  fortifications  around,  381. 

Philadelphia,  settled,  105  ;  relative  rank  in 
population,  125 ;  campaign  around,  in 
1776,  183,  184  ;  capture  of,  184  ;  British 
leave,  187  ;  capital,  236. 

Philadelphia,  frigate,  242,  243. 

Philip,  King,  94,  96  ;  war  on  whites,  94-98. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  on  Lovejoy  assassina- 
tion, 295. 

Phonograph,  the,  417. 

Pickens,  Gen.,  196,  200,  349. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  administration  of,  322. 

Pike's  Peak,  gold  at,  331. 

Pillory,  the,  137. 

Pine-Tree  shilling,  216. 

Pirates  of  the  Mediterranean,  242,  243. 

Pitcairn,    Mai.,  164. 

Pitt,  William,  118,158. 

Pizarro,  32. 

Plantation  life,  138,  139. 

Plantations  of  the  South,  the,  136. 

Pittsburgh,  battle  of,  260. 

Pleasant  Hill,  378. 

Plows,  234. 

Plymouth,  settlement  of,  82. 

Plymouth  Colony,  "Separatists"  of,  79; 
founders,  80  ;  settlement,  82  ;  early  years 
of,  83,  84  ;  union  with  Mass.,  84. 

company,  the,  55,  83. 

patent,  the,  81. 

Pocahontas  and  John  Smith,  58,  59. 

Polk,  James  K.,  elected  president,  304; 
administration  of,  306-316. 

Polo,  Marco,  17. 

Polygamy,  laws  against,  420,  426. 

Ponce  de  Leon  (Pon'thaydaylay-own'),  30,  31. 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  133,  134. 

Pope,  Gen.,  takes  command  on  the 
Potomac,  366. 

Population  in  1890,  434. 

"  Populists,"  the,  434. 

Port  Hudson,  surrender  of,  314. 


Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,  settled,  37  ;  cap- 
ture of,  114. 

Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  71, 

Postage  rates,  reduction  of,  421. 

Potomac  River,  65. 

Powhatan  (Pow-ha-tan'),  Va.,  59. 

President's  election,  powers  and  duties,  221. 

Presidential  election  of  1789,  225;  of  1800, 
240 ;  of  1808,  247  ;  of  1812,  254  ;  of  1824, 
271  ;  of  1840,  297;  of  1844,  304;  of  1852, 
322  ;  of  1860,  332 ;  of  1864,  386 ;  of  1868, 
402;  of  1876,  410;  of  1880,  417;  of  1884, 
423  ;  of  1888,  428  ;  of  1892,  434. 

Presidential  succession,  425,  426. 

Prevost  (Pre-vo'),  Gen.,  194,  260. 

Price,  Gen.  Sterling,  355,  360. 

Princeton,  battle  of^  179,  180. 

Princeton  College,  144. 

Printing  in  colonial  Virginia,  141. 

Prisoners,  exchange  of,  385. 

Proctor,  Gen.,  255  ;  attacks   Fort  Stephen- 
son,  256. 
Protection,"  434. 

Protective  tariff,  285. 

Providence,  settlement  of,  91. 

Pueblo  (pway'-blo)  Indians,  the,  2. 

Pulaski,  Count,  195. 

Punishments  in  colonial  New  England,  130. 


Quakers  in  Pennsylvania,  104-106,  144. 
Quebec,  capture  of,  119,  120;  founding  of, 

37- 

ueen  Anne's  war,  113,  114. 

ueenstown  Heights,  capture  of,  253. 
'ncy  railway,  290. 


Radicals,  the,  348. 

Railroads,  early,  290,  291 ;  development  of, 

321  ;  transcontinental,  406. 
Raleigh   (Raw'ly),   Sir  Walter,  charter  to, 

43  ;  expeditions  of,  43,  44. 
Randolph,  Edmund,  secretary  of  war,  228. 
"  Reciprocity  policy,"  431. 
Reconstruction  acts  of  Congress,  399. 
Reconstruction  period,  397  et  seq. 
Red  River  expedition,  378. 
Religion,   in   the    New    England  Colonies, 

128 ;   in  the  Southern  Colonies,   139 ;  in 

the  Middle  Colonies,  144. 
Republican  convention  at  Chicago,  in  1860, 

Republican  party,  the,  232,  325. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma  (Ray-sah'cah  dey  lah 
Pal'mah),  battle  of,  311. 

Resumption  Act,  the,  416. 

"  Returning  Boards,"  the,  411. 

Revere,  Paul,  164. 

Revival,  the  great,  of  1740,  96. 

Revolution,  beginnings  of,  163,  164  ;  war  of 
the,  152-184. 

Rhode  Island,  settlement,  91 ;  the  Don- 
Rebellion,  300  ;  ratifies  constitution,  220. 

Rice  culture  in  South  Carolina,  71. 

Richmond,  Va.,  settlement  of,  58;  capital 
of  Southern  Confederacy,  351;  prisons  of, 
385  ;  evacuation  of,  387. 

Rio  Grande  boundary,  310. 


INDEX. 


Ixv 


Ripley,  Gen.,  in  Canada,  259. 

Roanoke  Island,  Raleigh's  Colony,  44. 

Rochambeau  (Ro-sham-bo'),  Gen.,  205. 

"  Rocket,"  The,  291. 

Rolfe,  Capt.  John,  58,  59,  60. 

Rosecrans,  Gen.  VV.  S.,  luka  and  Corinth, 

360;  Murfreesboro,  360;  defeat  of,  375. 
Ross,  Gen.,  attacks  Baltimore,  261. 
"  Rotten  boroughs,"   157. 

Sabbath  observance,  129. 

Sabine  Cross  Roads,  378. 

Sabine  Pass,  attack  on,  374. 

Sabine  river,  boundary,  266. 

Sackett's  Harbor,  attack  on,  258. 

Sacramento,  growth  of,  in  1849,  3l(>. 

Sagas  (Say'gaz),  the  Norse,  15,  16. 

St.    Augustine,    Fla.,    settlement    of,  34; 

burning  of,  71. 

St.  Clair,  Gen.,  defeat  of,  231. 
St.  John,  J.  P.,  nomination  of,  423. 
St.  Lawrence,  Cartier  on  the,  37. 
St.  Leger  (Lej'er)  at  Fort  Stanwix,  182. 
St.  Mary's,  Maryland,  65. 
St.  Regis,  battle  of,  258. 
"  Salary  grab,"  the,  408. 
Salem,  Mass.,  settlement  of,  84 ;  witchcraft 

in,  87. 

Samoan  dispute,  the,  431. 
San  Francisco,  in  1849,  316. 
San  Francisco  bay,  Drake  in,  41. 
San  Jacinto,  battle  of,  303. 
San  Jacinto,  the,  356. 
San  Salvador  island,  21 
Sandys,  Sir  Edwin,  60. 
Santa  Anna,  Gen.,  defeat  of,  312,  313. 
Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  capture  of,  315. 
Santa  Maria  (Mah-ree'ah),  the,  20. 
Saratoga,  battle  of,  182. 
Savannah,  Ga.,  settlement  of,  74;   capture 

of,  194  ;  American  and  French  attack  on, 

Saybrook,  Fort,  Conn.,  89,  90. 
Schools  in  the  colonies,  132,  141,  144. 
Schuyler  (Ski'ler)  Gen.,  181,  182. 
Scientific  progress,  1837-40,  296. 
Scotch-Irish  in  Virginia,  63,  64. 
Scotch  Presbyterians  in  New  Jersey,  144. 
Scott,  Dred,  327,  328. 

Scott,  Gen.  W.  S.,  in  Canada,  259;   cam- 
paign in  Mexico,  312,  313. 
Seal  fisheries,  the,  437. 
Secession,  the  "  mode  of  redress,"  339,  340. 
Secession  of  Southern  States,  336,  337. 
Secession  ordinance,  337. 
Secession,  right  of,  338,  392. 
Seminole  war,  the,  265,  266,  288. 
"  Separatists,"  the,  79,  80. 
Serapis  (Ser-ay'pis),  the,  193. 
Seven  Days'  Battles,  1862,  366. 
Seven  Pines,  battle  of,  364^ 
Sevier  (Se-veer),  John,  198,  214. 
Seward,  W.  H.,  357,  388. 
Seymour  (Se'more),  Horatio,  403. 
Shannon,  the,  254,  255. 
Sharpsburg,  or  Antietam,  battle  of,  366,  367. 


bnarpsburg,  or  Antietan 
Shays's  Rebellion,  217. 


Shenandoah  Valley,  operations  in  the,  380, 
381 ;  Stonewall  Jackson's  campaign,  364, 
365  ;  Sheridan  in,  381,  387. 
Sheridan,  Gen.,  campaign  of,  in  the  Shen- 
andoah Valley,  381,  387. 
Sherman,    Gen.,    moves  on   Mobile,   378; 
marches  to  oppose  Johnston,  379 ;    pur- 
sues Johnston  in  Georgia,  382;  "March 
to  the  Sea,"  384,  386. 
Sherman  Act,  the,  430. 
Shiloh,  battle  of,  358. 
Sigel  (See'-gel),  Gen.,  379,  380. 
Silver,  demonetization  of,  409 ;   restoration 

of,  416. 

Silver  legislation  in  1888,  430. 
Silver  question  in  1893,  435. 
Sioux  (Soo)  Indians,  3  ;  uprising  in  1876,  409. 
Sitting  Bull,  409. 

"  Slave  "  and  "  Free  "  states,  266. 
Slave  labor  in  Southern  Colonies,  135. 
Slave  ship,  the  first,  86. 

Slavery,  abolition  of,  391  ;  in  the  colonies, 
125  ;  in  Southern  Colonies,  136;  in  the  ter- 
ritories, 266,  267 ;  position  of  parties  on, 
in  1860,  334 ;  prohibited  in  Northwest 
Territory,  2 14  ;  prohibited  in  Georgia,  74  ; 
Southern  view  of,  289. 

Slaves,  the  first,  61 ;  prohibition  of  importa- 
tion of,  246. 

Sloat,  Commodore,  314. 
Sloughter  (Slo'ter),  Gov.,  102. 
Smith,    Capt.    John,    sketch    of,    54 ;    the 
"Great  Deliverer,"   58;    in   New   Eng- 
land, 93. 
Smith,  Joseph,  founder  of  Mormonism,  300, 

Smith,  Gen.  Kirby,   raids   Kentucky,  360 ; 

surrender,  388. 
Smithson,  James,  296. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  the,  275. 
Smuggling,  152,  153  ;  in  New  Jersey,  104. 
Smyth,  Gen.,  expedition  of,  to  Canada,  253, 

Soaai  life  in  the  Middle  Colonies,  146 ;  in 
New  England  Colonies,  130;  in  the 
Southern  Colonies,  138,  139. 

"  Solid  South,"  the  417. 

South,  preparation  of  the,  for  war,  341;  con- 
dition of  the,  at  close  of  the  war,  392  ;  sen- 
timent of,  in  1860,  335 ;  war  in  the,  in 
1778-80,  193. 

South  Carolina,  settlement  and  colonization, 
70-72  ;  rice  culture,  72  ;  fundamental  con- 
stitutions, 72  ;  British  in,  196. 

South  Dakota,  admission  of,  433. 

Southern  Colonies,  the,  135  ;  form  of  govern- 
ment of,  137. 

Southern  States,  political  condition  in  1876  ; 
readmission  of,  399,  400. 

Spain  and  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi, 
215. 

Spaniards  in  Georgia,  troubles  with,  75. 

Spanish  explorations,  29. 

Specie  payments,  resumption  of,  409. 

Spoils  system,  283. 

Spotswood,  Gov.,  64,  135. 

Squatter  sovereignty,  330,  331. 


Ixvi 


HISTORY    OF    OUR    COUNTRY. 


Stamp  Act,  the,  156-158. 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  158. 

Standard  time,  422. 

Standish,  Miles,  83,  84. 

•'  Star  Route  "  frauds,  420. 

''  Star  spangled  banner,"  261. 

Stark,  Gen.,  181. 

"  Stars  and  bars,"  351. 

Steamboat,  the  first,  246. 

Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  vice-president  of 
Southern  Confederacy,  338. 

Stephenson,  George,  291. 

Stevenson,  A.  E.,  nomination  of,  434. 

Stony  Point,  capture  of,  194,  195. 

•'  Strict  Constructiouists,"  227. 

Stuyvesant  (Sty've-sant),  Peter,  101. 

Sub-Treasury  system,  294,  299. 

Sullivan,  Gen.,  expedition  against  the  In- 
dians, 188. 

Sumter,  Gen.,  196,  200. 

Sumter,  blockade  runner,  356. 

Sumter,  Fort,  see  Fort  Sumter. 

Supreme  Court,  the,  221,  222. 

Sutler,  Capt.,  315. 

Sutler's  Fort,  314. 

"  Swamp  Fox,"  the,  196. 

Swanzey,  Mass.,  Indian  massacre,  95. 

Swedes  in  America,  the,  48-50. 

Taney,  Chief  Justice,  329. 

Tariff  Act  of  1842,  300 ;  of  1883,  421. 

Tariff  legislation  under  Jackson,  284-286 ; 
in  1888,  428  ;  Ihe  McKinley  Bill,  430 ;  the 
Wilson  Bill,  436. 

"  Tariff  for  revenue  only,"  434. 

Tarlelon,  Gen.,  200,  201. 

Taylor,  Gen.  Z.,  defeals  Seminoles,  288; 
march  of,  lo  the  Rio  Grande,  311;  invades 
Mexico,  311 ;  defeats  Mexicans  at  Buena 
Vista,  312;  elecled  presidenl,  317;  ser- 
vices and  character  of,  318. 

"Tea  Party"  in  Boslon  harbor,  161. 

Tea  lax,  160,  161. 

Tecumseh,  256,  257. 

Telegraph  put  into  operalion,  300. 

Telephone,  the,  416. 

Tennessee,  the,  384. 

Tennessee,  ceded  to  the  U.  S.,  214;  ad- 
mitted to  Ihe  Union,  232 ;  restored  lo  ihe 
Union,  399. 

"Tenure  of  office  "  Act,  400. 

Territories,  slavery  in  the,  318,  319. 

Texas,  Spanish  in,  33 ;  relinquished  to 
Spain,  266  ;  independence  of,  302 ;  annex- 
ation of,  301-304,  310;  campaign  of  1863, 

Thames,  bailie  of  ihe,  257. 

Thomas,  Gen.  G.  H.,  al  Chaltanooga,  375  ; 

defeats  Hood  at  Nashville,  383,  384. 
Ticonderoga,  Fort,  118,  183. 
Tilden,  Samuel  ].,  nomination  of,  411. 
Tippecanoe,  battle  of,  249,  250. 
"  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too,    297. 
Tithing-men,  129. 
Tobacco,  introduction  of,  into  Europe,  44 ; 

cullure  in  Va.,  59,  60,  135. 
Tomahawk,  ihe,  7. 


Tomochichi  (-chee-chee),  Indian  chief,  74. 

Tolem,  the,  5. 

Town  life  in  New  England  Colonies,  128. 

Town-meeting,  128. 

Towns,  absence  of,  in  ihe  South,  136. 

Townshend  Acts,  159. 

Travel,  facilities  of,  234. 

Treaty  of  Ghent,  262. 

Treaty  of  Peace,  1783,  206,  212. 

Treaty  of  Washington,  404. 

Treaty  with  France,  1800,  240. 

Treaty  with  Mexico,  315. 

Trent,  affair  of  the,  356. 

Trenton,  battle  of,  179. 

Tripoli,  war  with,  242,  243. 

Tyler,  John,  administration  of,  297-305. 

Underground  railway,  the,  321,  336. 
Utah,  admission  of,  436. 

Valley  Forge,  camp  al,  186. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  elecled  presidenl,  292  ; 
adminislralion  of,  293-296. 

Vancouver's  Island,  405. 

VanDorn,  Gen. ,360. 

Vera  Cruz,  siege  of,  312. 

Verrazzano  (Vay-rahl-zahn'o),  36. 

Vespucci,  Amerigo  (Ah-ma-re'go  Ves-poot' 
che),  29. 

Vicksburg,  fall  of,  3 73,  3 74. 

Virginia,  named,  44 ;  settlement  and  colo- 
nization, 53-65;  first  charter,  56;  firsl 
Assembly,  60  ;  slaves  in  colony  of,  61  ; 
settlement  of  valley,  63  ;  population  in 
1763,  125 ;  the  Townshend  Acts,  159 ; 
resolutions  of  Assembly  of,  on  Boston 
Port  Bill,  162  ;  Lord  Dunmore's  war,  170 ; 
cedes  N.  W.  Territory,  213. 

Virginia  Bill  of  Rights,  248. 

Virginia  and  Kentucky  resolutions,  239. 

Virginia,  the,  363. 

War  of  1812-1814,  250-262. 

War  between  the  states,  causes,  340 ;  firsl 
year  of,  347-357;  second  year,  358-370: 
campaign  of  1863,  371-377 ;  campaign  of 
1864,  377-386;  comparalive  slrenglh  of 
Union  and  Confederale  armies,  389 ; 
losses,  389 ;  close  of  the,  389 ;  financial 
cost  of,  390 ;  resulls,  390 

Washington,  George,  expedition  to  Ohio, 
114,  115;  wilh  Braddock,  116,  117;  ap- 
poinled  commander  of  ihe  Conlinenlal 
army,  168 ;  lakes  command,  169  ;  relreal 
through  New  Jersey,  177,  178;  crosses 
the  Delaware,  178,  179;  al  Trenlon,  179; 
at  Chad's  Ford,  184;  at  Valley  Forge, 
186;  rebukes  Lee,  187;  plans  lo  allack 
Cornwallis,  203  ;  presidenl  of  Constitu- 
tional Convention,  218;  inauguration  of, 
226 ;  administration  of,  225-235  ;  appointed 
Commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  238 ; 
dealh,  239. 

John,  62. 

Cily,  capilal  of  ihe  United  Stales, 

236  ;  capture  of,  261. 

stale  of,  admission  of,  433. 


Wasp,  the,  252,  253. 

Wayne,  Gen.,  at  Stony  Point,  195  ;  defeats 
Maumee  Indians,  231. 

Weaver,  J.  K.,  nominated  by  the  "Popu- 
lists," 434. 

Webster,  Daniel,  replies  to  Hayne,  286 ;  on 
the  tariff  of  1816,  285  ;  supports  protective 
tariff,  286  ;  debate  of,  with  Calhoun,  287 ; 
on  Compromise  of  1850,  320. 

Wesley,  John,  in  Georgia,  74,  75. 

West  Jersey,  104. 

West  Virginia,  loyal  to  the  Union,  350 ; 
campaign  of  1861  in,  353  ;  admission  of, 

West,  settlement  of  the,  230,  231. 

Wheeler,  William  A.,  nomination  of,  410. 

Whig  party,  the,  291,  292. 

"  Whiskey  insurrection,"  the,  230. 

"  Whiskey  ring,"  the,  408. 

Whitefield  (.Whit'field),  George,  in  Georgia, 

74,  75  ;  and  the  "  Great  Awakening,"  96 ; 

on  slavery,  136. 
Whitman,  Marcus,  expedition  of,  to  Oregon, 

Whitney,  Eli,  233. 

Wigglesworth,   M.,  his  "Day  of  Doom," 

Wifderness,  battles  of  the,  380,  381. 

Willamette  Valley,  309. 

William  and   Mary   College,   Virginia,   64, 


Williams,  Roger,  86,  91. 
Williamsburg,  capital  of  Virginia,  64;  en- 
gagement at,  364. 
Wilmot  Proviso,  the,  319. 
Wilson,  Henry,  nomination  of,  408. 
Wilson  Bill,  the,  436. 
Wilson's  Creek,  battle  of,  356. 
Winchester,  battle  of,  381. 
Windmills,  143. 
Winthrop,  Governor,  85. 
Winthrop,  John,  Jr., builds  Ft.  Saybrook,  89. 
Witchcraft  craze  in  Massachusetts,  87. 
Wolfe,  Gen.,  at  Quebec,  119,  120. 
World,  circumnavigation  of,  31. 
World's  Fair,  1853,  the,  326. 
World's  Fair  at  Chicago,  the,  436. 
Writs  of  assistance,  154. 
Wyeth,  Nathaniel  J.,  309. 
Wyoming,  admission  of,  433. 
massacre,  188. 

Yale  College,  founded,  132. 
Yeardley,  Governor,  60. 
Yellow  fever  epidemic,  1878-9,  417. 
Yorktown,  surrender  at,  205  ;  evacuation  of, 
1862,  364. 

centennial,  422. 

Young,  Brigham,  301. 

Ysleta  (Is-let'ta),  settlement  at,  35. 

Zollicoffer,  Gen.,  358. 


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